Metalanguage

Phonetics and Phonology

• Phonetics: Study of speech sounds and their production.

• Phonology: Study of sound patterns in language.

• Metalanguage includes:

  • Connected Speech Processes: Connection of sounds in natural speech.

    • Assimilation: A sound changes to resemble a neighboring sound (e.g., 'handbag' to 'hambag').

    • Vowel Reduction: Vowels become less distinct in unstressed syllables (e.g., 'banana' first syllable).

    • Elision: Omission of sounds (e.g., 'I have' to 'I've').

    • Insertion: Adding sounds for easier pronunciation (e.g., 'warmth' to 'warmpth').

Prosodic Features

• Elements affecting sequences of syllables:

  • Pitch: Height of sound (high or low).

  • Intonation: Pitch variation in speech.

  • Stress: Emphasis placed on syllables.

  • Tempo: Speed of speech delivery.

  • Volume: Loudness variation in speech.

• International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA): Symbol system for representing speech sounds.

Morphology

• Morphology: Study of word formation and structure.

• Words composed of morphemes: smallest units of meaning.

• Key processes in word formation:

  • Affixation: Adding prefixes or suffixes (e.g., 'government' from 'govern').

  • Abbreviation: Shortened forms of words (e.g., 'VCAA').

  • Shortening: Reducing word length (e.g., 'pram' from 'perambulator').

  • Compounding: Joining whole words (e.g., 'bookcase').

  • Blending: Combining parts of words (e.g., 'kidult').

  • Backformation: Removing perceived affix (e.g., 'televise' from 'television').

  • Conversion of Word Class: Changing grammatical role without morphological change (e.g., 'email' as a verb).

  • Initialism: Abbreviation pronounced as letters (e.g., 'VCE').

  • Acronym: Abbreviation forming a new word (e.g., 'ANZAC').

  • Contraction: Forming short words by omission (e.g., 'she’s').

Lexicology

• Lexicology: Study of words and their behavior.

• Word Classes: Categories based on grammatical behavior:

  • Nouns: Names of entities.

  • Pronouns: Replace nouns (e.g., he, she, it).

  • Verbs: Actions or states.

  • Adjectives: Describe nouns.

  • Adverbs: Modify verbs/adjectives.

  • Prepositions: Indicate relationships.

  • Conjunctions: Link words/clause.

    • Coordinators (e.g., and, but).

    • Subordinators (e.g., because, although).

  • Determiners: Clarify nouns (e.g., articles, demonstratives).

  • Interjections: Express emotions (e.g., Wow!).

Word Formation Processes

• Neologism: Newly coined word.

• Borrowings: Adopted from other languages.

• Commonisation: Proper nouns becoming common nouns (e.g., 'bandaid').

• Nominalisation: Changing words into nouns (e.g., 'decision' from 'decide').

Syntax

• Syntax: Structure of phrases, clauses, and sentences.

Phrases

• Groups of words functioning as a single unit:

  • Noun Phrase: Centered around a noun (e.g., ‘the quick brown fox’).

  • Verb Phrase: Contains the verb and modifiers (e.g., ‘is running quickly’).

  • Prepositional Phrase: Begins with a preposition (e.g., ‘on the table’).

  • Adjective Phrase: Centers on an adjective (e.g., ‘very happy’).

  • Adverb Phrase: Centers on an adverb (e.g., ‘quite slowly’).

Clauses

• Groups of words with a subject and predicate:

  • Independent Clause: Can stand alone (e.g., 'The cat sleeps').

  • Dependent Clause: Cannot stand alone (e.g., 'when she is hungry').

• Key components:

  • Subjects: Perform actions (e.g., 'the cat').

  • Predicates: Describe actions (e.g., 'are blooming').

  • Objects: Entities affected by actions.

  • Complements: Complete meaning of predicates.

Sentence types

• Declarative: Makes a statement (e.g., 'The cat sleeps.').

• Imperative: Commands (e.g., 'Close the door.').

• Exclamative: Expresses emotion (e.g., 'What a beautiful day!').

Sentence Structures

• Simple: One independent clause.

• Compound: Two independent clauses.

• Complex: One independent clause + dependent clause.

• Compound-complex: Multiple independent clauses + at least one dependent clause.

• Fragment: Incomplete sentence.

Discourse and Pragmatics

• Discourse: Extended spoken or written texts.

• Pragmatics: Contextual language use and meaning.

Paralinguistic Features

• Elements enhancing meaning beyond words:

  • Vocal Effects: Variations conveying emotion (e.g., whispers, laughter).

  • Non-Verbal Communication: Body language (e.g., gestures, facial expressions).

Semantics

• Semantics: Study of meaning in communication.

Key Concepts

• Meaning and Sign: Signifier and signified relationship.

• Semantic Domain: Related sets of meanings (e.g., 'weather').

• Inference: Drawing conclusions from context.