It implies a universal decline, but many regions outside Europe experienced golden ages during this period, particularly in the Middle East and China.
Within Europe, literacy and learning were preserved by the church, so the period wasn't entirely "dark".
Justinian and the Eastern Roman Empire
After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantine Empire) persisted and experienced a resurgence in the 6th century under Emperor Justinian.
Justinian is a controversial figure:
Considered a great emperor by historians for reviving the glory of the Roman Empire.
Viewed as a tyrant by his contemporaries.
Analogous to Joseph Stalin: achieving great things through ruthless means.
Justinian faced riots in Constantinople and suppressed them violently, resulting in approximately 30,000 deaths.
Justinian's ambitions:
Building his legacy as a Roman Emperor.
Recovering the glory and power of the Roman Empire.
Accomplishments:
Built up Constantinople with structures like the Hagia Sophia.
Created Justinian's Code, a law code that reinforced the emperor's divinely ordained authority. It communicated that Justinian, as emperor, was God's earthly representative. This reinforced divine right, emphasizing the emperor's unique position as God's chosen ruler, heir to the Roman Empire, and universal arbiter.
Military Campaigns:
Justinian's wars to reclaim former Roman territories were destructive, especially in Italy.
Byzantine invasions caused more damage to Rome than the earlier Germanic invasions.
The Byzantine Empire recovered North Africa, Italy (including Rome), and established footholds in Spain and France.
Justinian's Plague
The plague, later known as Justinian's Plague, originated in Egypt and spread throughout the Byzantine Empire and beyond.
It is estimated to have killed up to 13% of the global population, between 25 and 50 million people.
The plague devastated Constantinople and further weakened Italy.
The plague contributed significantly to the challenges of the Dark Ages.
Byzantine-Sassanid Wars
The Byzantine and Sassanid Persian Empires fought a destructive war from 602 to 628.
The war weakened both empires, leaving them vulnerable to new threats.
The Byzantine Empire lost eastern provinces, including Palestine, Syria, and Egypt, and nearly lost Constantinople.
Emperor Heraclius counterattacked, driving the Persians back to their capital.
By 628, both empires were exhausted and susceptible to new challengers.
The Rise of Islam
The Arabian Peninsula was primarily desert with oasis cities like Mecca and Medina.
Arab society was characterized by tribalism, nomadic lifestyles, and skilled warriors.
Muhammad began having visions around 609, claiming to be visited by the angel Gabriel.
Muhammad preached the five pillars of Islam:
Confession: There is no god but Allah, and Muhammad is his prophet.
Alms: Care for the poor.
Pilgrimage: Muslims should pilgrimage to Mecca.
Prayer: Pray five times a day to Allah.
Fasting: Fasting during the month of Ramadan.
Muhammad was driven out of Mecca and went to Medina.
As head of state in Medina, Muhammad established the Islamic community as both a religious and political entity.
Warfare became an obligation for Muslim men to defend the community.
In 630, Muhammad conquered Mecca, and by his death in 632, the Islamic empire controlled nearly all of the Arabian Peninsula.
Islamic Expansion
After Muhammad's death, Abu Bakr was elected caliph, the successor to the prophet.
Under the early caliphs, Islam expanded rapidly out of the Arabian Peninsula.
Initial raids led to conquests due to the weakness of the Byzantine and Persian empires.
Islamic forces won victories over the Byzantines and Persians, conquering Syria, Palestine, Egypt, and North Africa.
By 711, they had invaded Spain.
To the east, they conquered Mesopotamia, toppling the Sassanid Persian Empire.
Constantinople withstood several sieges due to its strong fortifications and the use of Greek fire.
The Islamic expansion reached Central Asia and India by 711.
Division within Islam
A dispute arose over the legitimate successor to Muhammad.
Shiites believed that only relatives of the prophet, particularly his descendants through his son-in-law Ali, could be legitimate caliphs.
Sunnis argued that elected leadership was acceptable.
This division led to the split between Sunni and Shiite Islam, with Sunnis comprising about 90% of Muslims today.
The Abbasid Caliphate
The Umayyad dynasty was overthrown by the Abbasids in July.
The Abbasids founded Baghdad as their capital city.
The Abbasid caliphate ushered in a golden age for Islam, marked by the preservation of Greek learning and advancements in trade and intellectual pursuits.
The empire's vast size led to decentralization, with the Abbasids gradually losing control over various regions.
The Franks and Charlemagne
The Franks, a Germanic people, united under the Merovingian dynasty.
The Frankish kingdom was divided due to the Germanic tradition of dividing property equally among sons.
The Carolingians, led by Charles Martel, reunited the Frankish kingdom.
Charles Martel famously defeated a Muslim raid from Spain, halting Islamic expansion into Western Europe.
His son, Pepin, allied with the Pope and was crowned king of the Franks in July.
Pepin donated the Papal States to the Pope, establishing the Pope as a secular ruler.
Charlemagne, Pepin's son, expanded the Frankish kingdom through conquest, uniting Germany, France, and Northern Italy.
Charlemagne revived Roman culture and language, making Latin the language of learning.
In August, Charlemagne was crowned Emperor of the Romans by the Pope on Christmas Day, challenging the Byzantine Empire's claim to be the heir of Rome.
Charlemagne's empire was divided among his grandsons, leading to renewed conflict.
The Vikings
The Vikings emerged from Scandinavia and began raiding Europe.
The end of a mini ice age and the development of the Viking longboat facilitated Viking expansion.
Viking longboats were shallow-drafted, sturdy vessels that could navigate both open ocean and rivers.
Their mobility and unpredictable raids made them devastating, as they could strike quickly and retreat before armies could respond.
Vikings raided coastal settlements, sacked cities, and took valuables, often killing men, raping women, and taking slaves.
Viking raids continued for over two centuries and had significant consequences for the social and political systems of Europe.