Chapter 7 Investigate Sources: Creating and Ratifying the Constitution
1. Objectives of the Second Continental Congress
During the Revolutionary War, the Second Continental Congress sought to establish a solid foundation for the war effort through two main strategies:
Military Coalition: Creating a lasting alliance among all colonies to oppose Britain.
Power Centralization: Centralizing key powers to ensure the coordination of military and political efforts.
2. Adoption and Dual Priorities
Adopted in 1777, the Articles of Confederation established the federal government of the United States. The drafting process involved navigating a complex balance:
Wartime Coordination: The need for a unified federal authority to manage the conflict.
State Sovereignty: Concessions to individual states that insisted on maintaining political control within their own governments, assemblies, and local populations.
3. Key Articles and Limitations
Articles II, III, and VI: These sections were critical because they effectively balanced federal requirements with the autonomy of the states during the war.
Post-1783 Challenges: Although the framework functioned during the conflict, it began to present significant structural problems for the Confederation once the Revolutionary War ended in 1783.
1. Objectives of the Second Continental Congress
During the Revolutionary War, the Second Continental Congress sought to establish a solid foundation for the war effort through two main strategies:
Military Coalition: Creating a lasting alliance among all colonies to oppose Britain.
Power Centralization: Centralizing key powers to ensure the coordination of military and political efforts.
2. Adoption and Dual Priorities
Adopted in , the Articles of Confederation established the federal government of the United States. The drafting process involved navigating a complex balance:
Wartime Coordination: The need for a unified federal authority to manage the conflict.
State Sovereignty: Concessions to individual states that insisted on maintaining political control within their own governments, assemblies, and local populations.
3. Key Articles and Limitations
Articles II, III, and VI: These sections were critical because they effectively balanced federal requirements with the autonomy of the states during the war.
Post- Challenges: Although the framework functioned during the conflict, it began to present significant structural problems for the Confederation once the Revolutionary War ended in .
4. Shays's Rebellion (-)
The limitations of the Articles were brought into sharp relief during the due to economic instability and internal conflict:
Economic Roots: Post-war credit-granting merchant houses began demanding payment in hard currency. This was nearly impossible for farmers who relied heavily on credit.
Tax Resistance: When Massachusetts increased tax collection to shore up state finances, Daniel Shays led a rebellion of small farmers in August .
Federal Failure: Although Congress was technically in charge of the confederation's armed forces, it could not adequately fund a response to the rebellion, leaving the state militia and a private force to end the revolt in .
5. Impact and Washington's Perspective
The rebellion occurred at the seminal moment of the Constitutional Convention and highlighted the frailty of the existing government:
George Washington's Concern: In a letter to Henry Knox, Washington expressed anxiety that if the government was unable to enforce its laws, "anarchy & confusion must prevail."
A "Topsy Turvey" State: Washington admitted shock that a formidable rebellion could rise against laws "of our own making," viewing the instability as a sign that the current system was failing to protect constitutional rights.
1. Objectives of the Second Continental Congress
During the Revolutionary War, the Second Continental Congress sought to establish a solid foundation for the war effort through two main strategies:
Military Coalition: Creating a lasting alliance among all colonies to oppose Britain.
Power Centralization: Centralizing key powers to ensure the coordination of military and political efforts.
2. Adoption and Dual Priorities
Adopted in , the Articles of Confederation established the federal government of the United States. The drafting process involved navigating a complex balance:
Wartime Coordination: The need for a unified federal authority to manage the conflict.
State Sovereignty: Concessions to individual states that insisted on maintaining political control within their own governments, assemblies, and local populations.
3. Key Articles and Limitations
Articles , , and : These sections were critical because they effectively balanced federal requirements with the autonomy of the states during the war.
Post- Challenges: Although the framework functioned during the conflict, it began to present significant structural problems for the Confederation once the Revolutionary War ended in .
4. Shays's Rebellion (-)
The limitations of the Articles were brought into sharp relief during the due to economic instability and internal conflict:
Economic Roots: Post-war credit-granting merchant houses began demanding payment in hard currency. This was nearly impossible for farmers who relied heavily on credit.
Tax Resistance: When Massachusetts increased tax collection to shore up state finances, Daniel Shays led a rebellion of small farmers in August .
Federal Failure: Although Congress was technically in charge of the confederation's armed forces, it could not adequately fund a response to the rebellion, leaving the state militia and a private force to end the revolt in .
5. Impact and Washington's Perspective
The rebellion occurred at the seminal moment of the Constitutional Convention and highlighted the frailty of the existing government:
George Washington's Concern: In a letter to Henry Knox, Washington expressed anxiety that if the government was unable to enforce its laws, "anarchy & confusion must prevail."
A "Topsy Turvey" State: Washington admitted shock that a formidable rebellion could rise against laws "of our own making," viewing the instability as a sign that the current system was failing to protect constitutional rights.
6. Creating a Constitution: Tradition vs. Innovation
The United States departed from European political traditions by producing a written plan for the principles and practices of its government.
Influential Models:
Written: Only Corsica had produced a written constitution at that time.
Unwritten: Models such as Britain, the Iroquois Confederacy, and ancient Rome were structured according to unwritten constitutions.
Popular Sovereignty: Most framers subscribed to the Enlightenment idea that people possess ultimate sovereign powers which they delegate to political institutions.
7. Representation and Strategic Compromises
Defining "the people" and their representation led to significant debates during the drafting process:
The Great Compromise: A balance between the Virginia and New Jersey plans.
House of Representatives: Structured according to population.
Senate: Structured on an equitable basis with votes per state.
Three-Fifths Compromise (): This measure in the September draft defined how specific portions of the population were counted for both representation and taxation purposes.
8. Structure of the Federal Government
The framers incorporated the theories of French philosopher Montesquieu to safeguard individual liberty through the separation of powers.
Legislative Branch: Composed of Congress (Senate and House of Representatives); its role is to make laws.
Executive Branch: Composed of the President, Vice President, and Cabinet; its role is to carry out laws.
Judicial Branch: Composed of the federal court system and the Supreme Court; its role is to interpret laws.
Checks and Balances: The system ensures each branch functions independently to prevent any one branch from exceeding its authority.
9. The Presidency and the Electoral College
Establishing an executive office held by an individual was a contentious decision due to fears of tyranny and corruption.
Fear of "Elected Monarchy": Some Founders preferred an executive "committee" over a single president to avoid mimicking British rule.
Electoral College system: As a compromise, the president is not elected directly by the people. Instead, each state is assigned a number of electors based on its total representatives in Congress.
10. The Bill of Rights ()
In June , James Madison proposed amendments to the Constitution to guarantee fundamental rights.
Ratification: While Madison proposed articles, were eventually ratified.
Status: These first amendments, known as the Bill of Rights, entered into force in December .
1. Objectives of the Second Continental Congress
During the Revolutionary War, the Second Continental Congress sought to establish a solid foundation for the war effort through two main strategies:
Military Coalition: Creating a lasting alliance among all colonies to oppose Britain.
Power Centralization: Centralizing key powers to ensure the coordination of military and political efforts.
2. Adoption and Dual Priorities
Adopted in , the Articles of Confederation established the federal government of the United States. The drafting process involved navigating a complex balance:
Wartime Coordination: The need for a unified federal authority to manage the conflict.
State Sovereignty: Concessions to individual states that insisted on maintaining political control within their own governments, assemblies, and local populations.
3. Key Articles and Limitations
Articles , , and : These sections were critical because they effectively balanced federal requirements with the autonomy of the states during the war.
Post- Challenges: Although the framework functioned during the conflict, it began to present significant structural problems for the Confederation once the Revolutionary War ended in .
4. Shays's Rebellion (-)
The limitations of the Articles were brought into sharp relief during the due to economic instability and internal conflict:
Economic Roots: Post-war credit-granting merchant houses began demanding payment in hard currency. This was nearly impossible for farmers who relied heavily on credit.
Tax Resistance: When Massachusetts increased tax collection to shore up state finances, Daniel Shays led a rebellion of small farmers in August .
Federal Failure: Although Congress was technically in charge of the confederation's armed forces, it could not adequately fund a response to the rebellion, leaving the state militia and a private force to end the revolt in .
5. Impact and Washington's Perspective
The rebellion occurred at the seminal moment of the Constitutional Convention and highlighted the frailty of the existing government:
George Washington's Concern: In a letter to Henry Knox, Washington expressed anxiety that if the government was unable to enforce its laws, "anarchy & confusion must prevail."
A "Topsy Turvey" State: Washington admitted shock that a formidable rebellion could rise against laws "of our own making," viewing the instability as a sign that the current system was failing to protect constitutional rights.
6. Creating a Constitution: Tradition vs. Innovation
The United States departed from European political traditions by producing a written plan for the principles and practices of its government.
Influential Models:
Written: Only Corsica had produced a written constitution at that time.
Unwritten: Models such as Britain, the Iroquois Confederacy, and ancient Rome were structured according to unwritten constitutions.
Popular Sovereignty: Most framers subscribed to the Enlightenment idea that people possess ultimate sovereign powers which they delegate to political institutions.
7. Representation and Strategic Compromises
Defining "the people" and their representation led to significant debates during the drafting process:
The Great Compromise: A balance between the Virginia and New Jersey plans.
House of Representatives: Structured according to population.
Senate: Structured on an equitable basis with votes per state.
Three-Fifths Compromise (): This measure in the September draft defined how specific portions of the population were counted for both representation and taxation purposes.
8. Structure of the Federal Government
The framers incorporated the theories of French philosopher Montesquieu to safeguard individual liberty through the separation of powers.
Legislative Branch: Composed of Congress (Senate and House of Representatives); its role is to make laws.
Executive Branch: Composed of the President, Vice President, and Cabinet; its role is to carry out laws.
Judicial Branch: Composed of the federal court system and the Supreme Court; its role is to interpret laws.
Checks and Balances: The system ensures each branch functions independently to prevent any one branch from exceeding its authority.
9. The Presidency and the Electoral College
Establishing an executive office held by an individual was a contentious decision due to fears of tyranny and corruption.
Fear of "Elected Monarchy": Some Founders preferred an executive "committee" over a single president to avoid mimicking British rule.
Electoral College system: As a compromise, the president is not elected directly by the people. Instead, each state is assigned a number of electors based on its total representatives in Congress.
10. The Bill of Rights ()
In June , James Madison proposed amendments to the Constitution to guarantee fundamental rights.
Ratification: While Madison proposed articles, were eventually ratified.
Status: These first amendments, known as the Bill of Rights, entered into force in December .
11. The Ratification Debate: Federalists vs. Anti-Federalists
After the drafting of the Constitution in , it required ratification by of the states to take effect.
Federalists: Primarily educated elites from northern urban areas who supported a stronger national republic and a central government.
Anti-Federalists: Generally composed of farmers and local-level politicians who favored localized government and feared that centralized power would diminish state authority and individual liberty.
Key Outcomes: Delaware became the first state to ratify in December ; New Hampshire provided the crucial th vote in June . The Anti-Federalists were instrumental in forcing the inclusion of a Bill of Rights.
12. The Federalist and Anti-Federalist Papers
The debate over the role of the federal government played out in public discourse through series of influential essays.
The Federalist Papers: Authored by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay, these essays advocated for the ratification of the Constitution and a strong central authority.
The Anti-Federalist Papers: Authored by figures like Patrick Henry and others using pseudonyms such as "Brutus," these voiced concerns over government overreach and the absence of clear protections for civil liberties.
13. Analysis of Foundational Perspectives
Factions (Federalist No. ): James Madison argued that a well-constructed Union could control the "violence of faction"—groups driven by passions or interests adverse to the rights of others—citing physical property distribution as the most durable source of these divisions.
Human Nature and Governance (Federalist No. ): Madison supported the separation of powers and checks and balances based on the nature of men ("If men were angels, no government would be necessary"), famously stating that "ambition must be made to counteract ambition."
Scale of the Republic (Anti-Federalist No. ): Under the pseudonym "Brutus," writers argued that a free republic could not long subsist over a territory as large as the United States, citing Montesquieu's theory that in large republics, the public good is sacrificed to a thousand competing views, ultimately leading to tyranny.