bio exam

Understood! I’ll go through all the terms listed in your document and provide definitions along with connections to the relevant questions.

UNIT 1: Biochemistry

Terms & Definitions

  1. Proteins: Polymers of amino acids, essential for structure, enzymes, and cell signaling.

  2. Lipids: Hydrophobic molecules, including fats, oils, and phospholipids; vital for membranes and energy storage.

  3. Carbohydrates: Molecules like sugars and starches; provide energy and structural support.

  4. Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA; carry genetic information.

  5. Peptide Bond: Covalent bond linking amino acids in proteins.

  6. Glycosidic Linkage: Bond between sugar molecules in carbohydrates.

  7. Ester Bond: Bond between glycerol and fatty acids in lipids.

  8. Phosphodiester Bond: Bond linking nucleotides in DNA and RNA.

  9. Denaturation: Loss of protein structure due to heat or pH changes, rendering it nonfunctional.

  10. Amino Acid: Building blocks of proteins, containing an amino group, carboxyl group, and side chain.

  11. Fatty Acid: Long hydrocarbon chain with a carboxyl group; found in lipids.

  12. Mono/Di/Polysaccharide: Sugars classified by the number of units (e.g., glucose, sucrose, starch).

  13. Nucleotide: Monomer of nucleic acids, consisting of a sugar, phosphate group, and nitrogenous base.

  14. Saturated Fat: Fatty acids with no double bonds; solid at room temperature.

  15. Unsaturated Fat: Fatty acids with one or more double bonds; liquid at room temperature.

  16. Condensation Reaction: Joins molecules by removing water.

  17. Hydrolysis Reaction: Breaks molecules by adding water.

  18. Hydrophilic: Water-attracting molecules.

  19. Hydrophobic: Water-repelling molecules.

  20. Fluid-Mosaic Model: Describes the flexible, dynamic structure of cell membranes.

  21. Diffusion: Movement of molecules from high to low concentration.

  22. Osmosis: Diffusion of water across a semipermeable membrane.

  23. Hypertonic: Solution with higher solute concentration than the cell; causes water to leave the cell.

  24. Hypotonic: Solution with lower solute concentration than the cell; causes water to enter the cell.

  25. Isotonic: Solution with equal solute concentration; no net water movement.

  26. Facilitated Diffusion: Passive transport using protein channels.

  27. Endocytosis: Process where cells engulf materials.

  28. Exocytosis: Process where cells expel materials.

  29. Phagocytosis: Cell eating; engulfing large particles.

  30. Pinocytosis: Cell drinking; engulfing liquids.

Connections to Questions:

  • Q1-Q7: Use these terms to explain macromolecular structure, reactions, membrane transport, and the fluid mosaic model.

UNIT 2: Metabolic Processes

Terms & Definitions

  1. Coenzyme: Non-protein molecule assisting enzyme function (e.g., NAD+).

  2. Co-factor: Inorganic molecule aiding enzymes (e.g., metal ions like Zn²⁺).

  3. Endergonic Reaction: Requires energy input (e.g., photosynthesis).

  4. Exergonic Reaction: Releases energy (e.g., cellular respiration).

  5. Oxidation: Loss of electrons.

  6. Reduction: Gain of electrons.

  7. Active Site: Enzyme region where substrate binds.

  8. Activation Energy: Energy needed to start a reaction.

  9. Substrate: Molecule acted upon by an enzyme.

  10. Product: Molecule produced by a reaction.

  11. Induced-fit Model: Enzyme changes shape to better fit the substrate.

  12. Enzyme-Substrate Complex: Temporary complex formed during a reaction.

  13. Enzymes: Biological catalysts lowering activation energy.

  14. Glycolysis: Breakdown of glucose into pyruvate; produces ATP and NADH.

  15. Pyruvate Oxidation: Converts pyruvate into acetyl-CoA.

  16. Electron Transport Chain: Produces ATP using a proton gradient.

  17. Krebs Cycle: Series of reactions generating NADH, FADH₂, and ATP.

  18. Catabolic: Pathways breaking molecules for energy.

  19. Anabolic: Pathways building molecules using energy.

  20. Anaerobic: Occurs without oxygen (e.g., fermentation).

  21. Aerobic: Requires oxygen (e.g., cellular respiration).

  22. NADH/FADH₂: Energy carriers in cellular respiration.

  23. ATP: Energy currency of cells.

  24. Chemiosmosis: ATP production using a proton gradient.

  25. P680/P700: Reaction centers in photosystems.

  26. Photosystem: Protein-pigment complex in photosynthesis.

  27. Chlorophyll: Pigment absorbing light for photosynthesis.

  28. Carbon Fixation: Incorporation of CO₂ into organic molecules.

  29. Rubisco: Enzyme catalyzing carbon fixation.

  30. NADPH: Energy carrier in photosynthesis.

  31. Photon: Light particle absorbed during photosynthesis.

  32. Stomata: Leaf openings for gas exchange.

  33. RuBP: 5-carbon molecule in the Calvin cycle.

  34. Photorespiration: Wasteful process when Rubisco fixes oxygen instead of CO₂.

  35. CAM/C4/C3 Plants: Adaptations for photosynthesis in different environments.

Connections to Questions:

  • Q8-Q15: Relate these terms to energy transformations in cellular respiration and photosynthesis.

UNIT 3: Homeostasis

Terms & Definitions

  1. Homeostasis: Maintaining stable internal conditions.

  2. Nephron: Kidney unit filtering blood and forming urine.

  3. Glomerulus: Capillary network for filtration.

  4. Bowman’s Capsule: Surrounds glomerulus; collects filtrate.

  5. Loop of Henle: Reabsorbs water and salts.

  6. Proximal/Distal Tubule: Reabsorption and secretion in the nephron.

  7. Renal Medulla/Cortex/Pelvis: Kidney regions for filtration and drainage.

  8. Ureter/Urethra/Bladder: Parts of the excretory system.

  9. Reflex Arc: Pathway for reflexes.

  10. Neurotransmitter: Chemical signal between neurons.

  11. Motor/Sensory Neurons: Transmit signals to and from the CNS.

  12. Myelin Sheath: Insulates axons, speeding signals.

  13. Nodes of Ranvier: Gaps in myelin sheath.

  14. Resting/Action Potential: Electrical states of neurons.

  15. Depolarization/Repolarization: Changes in neuron charge during signaling.

  16. Peripheral/Central NS: Nervous system divisions.

  17. Sympathetic/Parasympathetic NS: Fight-or-flight vs. rest-and-digest systems.

  18. Hormone: Regulatory chemical messenger.

  19. Protein/Steroid Hormones: Bind to cell surface vs. enter cells directly.

  20. Pituitary/Hypothalamus: Brain structures regulating hormones.

Connections to Questions:

  • Q16-Q31: Use these terms to explain kidney function, neural signaling, and hormonal regulation.

UNIT 4: Molecular Genetics

Terms & Definitions

  1. DNA/RNA Polymerase: Enzymes for DNA/RNA synthesis.

  2. Leading/Lagging Strand: Continuous vs. discontinuous DNA replication.

  3. Replication Fork: Site where DNA is unwound.

  4. Codon/Anticodon: Triplets coding for amino acids.

  5. Exons/Introns: Coding vs. non-coding sequences.

  6. Promoter/Operator: DNA regions for transcription regulation.

  7. Helicase: Unwinds DNA.

  8. Ligase: Joins DNA fragments.

  9. tRNA/mRNA: RNA types in protein synthesis.

  10. Transcription/Translation: DNA to RNA to protein processes.

  11. Lac/Trp Operons: Prokaryotic gene regulation models.

Connections to Questions:

  • Q32-Q39: Link these terms to replication, transcription, translation, and mutation analysis.

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