international Relations Study guide

Realism

Realism is a dominant theory in international relations that emphasizes the competitive and conflictual side of international politics. It assumes that states are the primary actors, driven by self-interest and the pursuit of power in an anarchic international system. Key tenets include:

  • Statism: The state is the most important actor.

  • Survival: The primary goal of every state is to ensure its survival.

  • Self-help: States cannot rely on others for their security and must therefore rely on their own capabilities.

  • Anarchy: The international system lacks a central authority, leading to a constant struggle for power.

Liberalism

Liberalism in international relations emphasizes cooperation, mutual interests, and the potential for progress through institutions, democracy, and economic interdependence. It posits that domestic politics and individual preferences can influence state behavior. Key tenets include:

  • Interdependence: Economic and social ties make war less likely.

  • International Institutions: Organizations like the UN can foster cooperation and mitigate anarchy.

  • Democracy: Democratic states are less likely to go to war with each other (Democratic Peace Theory).

  • Human Rights: Emphasizes the importance of individual rights and freedoms.

Marxism

Marxism in international relations focuses on the economic and material aspects of global politics, viewing the international system as driven by class struggle and the pursuit of capital. It argues that the global capitalist system perpetuates inequality and exploitation between core (developed) and periphery (developing) states. Key concepts include:

  • Historical Materialism: Economic forces are the primary drivers of historical change.

  • Class Conflict: The global system is characterized by conflict between the bourgeoisie and proletariat, extended to states.

  • Dependency Theory: Explains how peripheral states are kept in a state of underdevelopment by core capitalist states.

Constructivism

Constructivism emphasizes the role of ideas, norms, culture, and identity in shaping international relations. It argues that states' interests and identities are not fixed but are socially constructed through interaction. The international system is not just material but also a realm of shared meanings and understandings. Key tenets include:

  • Social Construction: Anarchy, power, and interests are not objective realities but are products of social interaction.

  • Norms and Ideas: Shared beliefs, values, and rules influence state behavior and international outcomes.

  • Identity: How states perceive themselves and others shapes their foreign policy.

Cold War

The Cold War (roughly 1947-1991) was a period of geopolitical tension between the United States and its allies (Western Bloc) and the Soviet Union and its allies (Eastern Bloc). Characterized by ideological conflict (capitalism vs. communism), an arms race (especially nuclear), proxy wars, and a lack of direct large-scale military conflict between the superpowers. It ended with the dissolution of the Soviet Union.

Security Dilemma

The security dilemma describes a situation in international relations where actions taken by a state to increase its own security (e.g., increasing military strength, forming alliances) are perceived as threatening by other states. This can lead those other states to take similar measures, resulting in an arms race and heightened tensions, ultimately decreasing the security of all involved.

Critical Security

Critical Security Studies challenges traditional, state-centric approaches to security by broadening the concept beyond military threats to the state. It seeks to understand who or what is being secured, by whom, from what, and for what purpose. It often focuses on non-military threats (e.g., environmental degradation, economic inequality, human rights abuses) and non-state actors, emphasizing human emancipation as a goal.

Anarchy

In international relations theory, anarchy refers to the absence of a central, legitimate authority above states in the international system. It does not necessarily mean chaos or disorder, but rather the lack of a world government that can enforce laws or prevent states from using force. It is a fundamental assumption for many theories, especially realism.

The State

The state is a central concept in international relations, typically defined by having:

  • A defined territory.

  • A permanent population.

  • An effective government.

  • The capacity to enter into relations with other states (i.e., sovereignty).
    States are usually considered the primary actors in the international system.

Sovereignty

Sovereignty is the principle that within its territorial borders, the state is the supreme legitimate authority. It implies two aspects:

  • Internal Sovereignty: The state's exclusive authority over its domestic affairs without external interference.

  • External Sovereignty: The state's independence from external control and its equal status with other states in the international system.

Interdependence

Interdependence in international relations refers to a situation where states and other actors are mutually reliant on each other. Actions by one actor have significant effects on others. It can be:

  • Economic Interdependence: Mutual reliance through trade, investment, and financial flows.

  • Environmental Interdependence: Shared ecological challenges like climate change.

  • Complex Interdependence: A concept developed by liberals, suggesting multiple channels of connection between societies, absence of hierarchy among issues, and a reduced role for military force.

Democratic Peace Theory

The Democratic Peace Theory is a prominent liberal idea that posits that democratic states are less likely to engage in war with each other. While democratic states may fight non-democratic states, there is strong empirical evidence that wars between established democracies are exceedingly rare. Explanations include shared norms, institutional constraints, and mutual trust.

International Institutions (10x)

International institutions are persistent and connected sets of rules (formal or informal) that prescribe behavioral roles, constrain activity, and shape expectations. They include:

  1. International Organizations (IOs): Formal intergovernmental bodies like the UN, WTO, NATO, EU.

  2. International Regimes: Sets of implicit or explicit principles, norms, rules, and decision-making procedures around which actors' expectations converge in a given area of international relations (e.g., non-proliferation regime).

  3. International Law: Treaties, conventions, and customary practices that govern state behavior.
    They facilitate cooperation, provide information, reduce transaction costs, and build trust among states.

National Security

National security traditionally refers to the security of the state, its territorial integrity, sovereignty, and key interests from external threats, primarily military ones. It often involves maintaining a strong military, forming alliances, and intelligence gathering.

Human Security

Human security is an alternative framework that shifts the focus of security from the state to the individual. It emphasizes protecting individuals from a broad range of threats, including chronic threats like hunger, disease, and repression, as well as sudden and hurtful disruptions in the patterns of daily life. It encompasses economic, food, health, environmental, personal, community, and political security.

League of Nations

The League of Nations was the first intergovernmental organization established after World War I, in 1920, with the primary goal of maintaining world peace. It aimed to prevent wars through collective security, disarmament, and negotiation. Despite some successes, it ultimately failed to prevent World War II and was replaced by the United Nations.

United Nations

The United Nations (UN) is the most prominent international organization, founded in 1945 after World War II. Its primary purposes are maintaining international peace and security, developing friendly relations among nations, achieving international cooperation, and being a center for harmonizing the actions of nations. It has 193 member states and various principal organs (e.g., Security Council, General Assembly).

Concert of Europe

The Concert of Europe was a system of dispute resolution adopted by the major European powers (Great Britain, Austria, Prussia, Russia, and later France) following the Napoleonic Wars (1815-1914). It aimed to maintain the balance of power and prevent major wars through collective consultation, often referred to as the first true system of collective security.

Post-Colonialism

Post-colonialism is an approach in international relations that examines the historical and continuing impact of colonialism and imperialism on international politics. It critiques Eurocentrism in IR theory, highlighting how power structures, knowledge production, and economic inequalities are legacies of colonial rule, particularly affecting states in the Global South.

Gender Theories (Feminism)

Feminist approaches in international relations critically analyze how gender shapes and is shaped by global politics. They argue that traditional IR theories often overlook or marginalize the experiences, roles, and perspectives of women, and they challenge the masculine biases in concepts like security, power, and state. Different streams include:

  • Liberal Feminism: Focuses on achieving gender equality within existing structures.

  • Critical Feminism: Examines how gender roles and power structures are socially constructed.

  • Poststructuralist Feminism: Deconstructs gendered language and discourses in IR.

Normative

In international relations, normative theory is concerned with what ought to be rather than what is. It deals with questions of morality, ethics, justice, and the prescriptions for how states and actors should behave. Examples include discussions on human rights, intervention, and global justice, often contrasting with empirical or positive theories that describe and explain international phenomena.

Life Cycle of Norms

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