AP Music Theory Comprehensive Study Guide

Unit 1: Music Fundamentals I: Pitch, Major Scales and Key Signatures, Rhythm, Meter, and Expressive Elements # Lesson One: Pitch and Pitch Notation * Pitch: A term used to indicate the highness or lowness of a sound. These are also referred to as tones or notes. * Middle $C$: A pitch located in the middle range that separates high pitches from low pitches. It is found on the first ledger line above the bass clef, the first ledger line below the treble clef, and serves as the middle line of the alto clef. * Notation: The application of various signs and symbols used to write down musical pitches. * Music Theory: The comprehensive study of notation and the methodology of applying it to a specific instrument or the human voice. * Staff: The set of five lines and four spaces upon which notes are positioned. Notes are counted from the bottom up, representing different pitches depending on the clef. * Note: A specific mark representing a musical pitch. * Notes in a space: Notes positioned between the lines on the staff. * Note on a line: Notes situated directly on a specific line of the staff. * Treble: A term referring to high pitches and high tones, specifically those located above Middle $C$. * Clef: A sign placed at the start of a staff to indicate the pitch of the notes (e.g., Bass clef, Alto clef, and Treble clef). * Note names in treble clef: * Spaces: $F ext{ - } A ext{ - } C ext{ - } E$ (Bottom to top). * Lines: $E ext{ - } G ext{ - } B ext{ - } D ext{ - } F$ (Bottom to top). * Note names in bass clef: * Spaces: $A ext{ - } C ext{ - } E ext{ - } G$ (Bottom to top). * Lines: $G ext{ - } B ext{ - } D ext{ - } F ext{ - } A$ (Bottom to top). * Note names in Alto clef: * Spaces: $G ext{ - } B ext{ - } D ext{ - } F$ (Bottom to top). * Lines: $F ext{ - } A ext{ - } C ext{ - } E ext{ - } G$ (Bottom to top). * Melody: A pattern formed by single pitches. It acts as the focal point of a song and is typically the most memorable element for an audience. * Treble staff: A staff used exclusively to represent pitches above Middle $C$. * Bass staff: A staff used to represent pitches lower than Middle $C$. * Alto staff: A staff where Middle $C$ is positioned on the middle (third) line. * Bass: A term referring to musical pitches occurring below Middle $C$. * Octave: The distance measured from one pitch to the next pitch of the same letter name (e.g., from a low $C$ to the next highest $C$ is exactly one octave). * Chord: The simultaneous playing of $2$ or more pitches (usually consisting of $3$ pitches). * Harmony: The resulting sound when $2$ or more tones are played at the same time. * Consonance: Chords that are perceived as pleasant-sounding. * Dissonant: Chords that are perceived as unpleasant-sounding. * Half step: The smallest unit of measurement in music notation (e.g., $C$ to C#). * Sharps ( ext{#}): A symbol used to raise a note by exactly one half step. * Flats ($b$): A symbol used to lower a note by exactly one half step. * **Naturals ($</h3><p>atural$)**: Symbols that cancel any preceding sharps or flats. * *Accidentals*: A collective term for sharps, flats, and naturals; they last only for the duration of the measure in which they appear. * *Whole step*: A measurement equal to two half steps (e.g., $A$ to $B$). # Lesson Two: Rhythmic Values * *Time signature*: A symbol indicating the meter. The top number determines how many beats are in each measure. The bottom number indicates which type of note receives one beat. * *Examples*: If the top number is $3$, there are three beats per measure. If the bottom number is $4$, the quarter note ($rac{1}{4}$) gets one beat. If the bottom number is $8$, the eighth note ($rac{1}{8}$) gets one beat. * *Common time*: Represented by the symbol $C$. This is equivalent to $rac{4}{4}$ time, featuring four beats per measure where the quarter note gets one beat. * *Cut time*: Represented by a $C$ with a vertical line through it. This is $rac{2}{2}$ time, featuring two beats per measure where the half note gets one beat. * *Quarter note ($ext{♩}$)*: One beat in $rac{4}{4}$ time. Counted as $1 ext{ - } 2 ext{ - } 3 ext{ - } 4$. * *Eighth note ($ext{♪}$)*: Half a beat ($rac{1}{2}$) in $rac{4}{4}$ time. Counted as 1 ext{&} ext{ - } 2 ext{&} ext{ - } 3 ext{&} ext{ - } 4 ext{&}. * *Sixteenth note*: One fourth ($rac{1}{4}$) of a beat in $rac{4}{4}$ time. Counted as 1e ext{&}a ext{ - } 2e ext{&}a ext{ - } 3e ext{&}a ext{ - } 4e ext{&}a. * *Half note*: Two beats in $rac{4}{4}$ time. It resembles a quarter note but with an open circle head. * *Whole note*: Fills an entire measure in $rac{4}{4}$ time. It looks like a half note but lacks a stem. * *Rest*: A period denoting beats of silence. * *Quarter rest*: One beat of silence in $rac{4}{4}$ time. It resembles a $z$ with a tail. * *Eighth rest*: Half a beat ($rac{1}{2}$) of silence in $rac{4}{4}$ time. It looks like an apostrophe placed on the fourth line of the staff. * *Sixteenth rest*: One fourth ($rac{1}{4}$) beat of silence in $rac{4}{4}$ time. It looks like an eighth rest with an additional line through the middle. * *Whole rest*: Silence for an entire measure. It is a rectangle hanging from the bottom of the fourth line. * *Half rest*: Silence for half a measure in $rac{4}{4}$ time ($2$ beats). It is a rectangle sitting on top of the third line. * *Dotted notes*: A note whose value is increased by one half of the original note's duration. It is indicated by a small dot placed by the note head. * *Example*: A dotted quarter note equals $1 rac{1}{2}$ beats ($1$ beat plus half of $1$). # Lesson Three: Half steps and Whole steps * *$1$ half step*: minor second ($m2$) * *$2$ half steps*: Major second ($M2$) * *$3$ half steps*: minor third ($m3$) * *$4$ half steps*: Major third ($M3$) * *$5$ half steps*: Perfect fourth ($P4$) * *$6$ half steps*: tritone * *$7$ half steps*: Perfect fifth ($P5$) * *$8$ half steps*: minor sixth ($m6$) * *$9$ half steps*: Major sixth ($M6$) and diminished seventh ($d7$) * *$10$ half steps*: minor seventh ($m7$) * *$11$ half steps*: Major seventh ($M7$) * *$12$ half steps*: Perfect octave ($P8$) * *Rule*: The intervals of $4$ and $5$ are NEVER classified as Major ($M$) or minor ($m$). # Lesson Four: Major Scales and Scale Degrees * *Scale degrees*: Counted starting from the root (first note) of the scale: * *First*: Tonic * *Second*: Supertonic * *Third*: Mediant * *Fourth*: Subdominant * *Fifth*: Dominant * *Sixth*: Submediant * *Seventh*: Leading Tone * *Eighth*: Tonic * *Major Scale Pattern*: Always follows the interval pattern of whole step ($W$), whole step ($W$), half step ($H$), whole step ($W$), whole step ($W$), whole step ($W$), and half step ($H$). This consists of two tetrachords connected by a whole step. # Lesson Five: Major keys and Key Signatures * *Order of sharps*: $F ext{ - } C ext{ - } G ext{ - } D ext{ - } A ext{ - } E ext{ - } B$ * *Order of flats*: $B ext{ - } E ext{ - } A ext{ - } D ext{ - } G ext{ - } C ext{ - } F$ * *Major Keys and Signatures*: * *$C$ Major*: $0$ Sharps / $0$ Flats * *$G$ Major*: $1$ Sharp (F#) * *$D$ Major*: $2$ Sharps (F#, C#) * *$A$ Major*: $3$ Sharps (F#, C#, G#) * *$E$ Major*: $4$ Sharps (F#, C#, G#, D#) * *$B$ Major*: $5$ Sharps (F#, C#, G#, D#, A#) * *F# Major*: $6$ Sharps (F#, C#, G#, D#, A#, E#) * *C# Major*: $7$ Sharps (F#, C#, G#, D#, A#, E#, B#) * *$F$ Major*: $1$ Flat ($Bb$) * *$Bb$ Major*: $2$ Flats ($Bb$, $Eb$) * *$Eb$ Major*: $3$ Flats ($Bb$, $Eb$, $Ab$) * *$Ab$ Major*: $4$ Flats ($Bb$, $Eb$, $Ab$, $Db$) * *$Db$ Major*: $5$ Flats ($Bb$, $Eb$, $Ab$, $Db$, $Gb$) * *$Gb$ Major*: $6$ Flats ($Bb$, $Eb$, $Ab$, $Db$, $Gb$, $Cb$) * *$Cb$ Major*: $7$ Flats ($Bb$, $Eb$, $Ab$, $Db$, $Gb$, $Cb$, $Fb$) # Lesson Six: Simple and Compound Beat Division * *Meter breakdown*: Every time signature can be categorized into a meter type. * *Simple meter*: Occurs when basic beats can be divided into two equal notes (e.g., $rac{2}{4}$). * *Compound meter*: Occurs when basic beats can be divided into three equal notes (e.g., $rac{6}{8}$). # Lesson Seven: Meter and Time Signature * *Simple Meters*: The bottom number corresponds to the specific note type that equals a single beat. * *Compound Meters*: The bottom number corresponds to the note type that equals a division of the beat. * *Example*: In a meter where the bottom number is $8$ but it is counted in four, the $8$ represents a division of the beat. # Lesson Eight: Rhythmic Patterns * *Meter*: A specific pattern that creates a regularized rhythm. * *Foot*: The basic unit in the scansion of verse. Usually contains one accented and one or two unaccented syllables. * *Iamb (Iambic)*: A two-syllable foot with the accent on the second syllable (e.g., re-hearse). * *Trochee (Trochaic)*: A two-syllable foot with the accent on the first syllable (e.g., bar-ter). * *Anapest (Anapestic)*: A three-syllable foot with two unaccented syllables followed by one accented syllable (e.g., un-der-stand). * *Dactyl (Dactylic)*: A three-syllable foot with one accented syllable followed by two unaccented syllables (e.g., mer-ri-ly). * *Spondee (Spondaic)*: Two syllables that are equally or almost equally accented (e.g., true-blue). * *Pyrrhic*: Two syllables that are both unstressed. Spondaic and Pyrrhic feet usually occur as variations on iambic or trochaic meters. * *Monometer*: Verse line of one foot. * *Dimeter*: Verse line of two feet. * *Trimeter*: Verse line of three feet. * *Tetrameter*: Verse line of four feet. * *Pentameter*: Verse line of five feet. * *Hexameter*: Verse line of six feet. * *Heptameter*: Verse line of seven feet. * *Octometer*: Verse line of eight feet. # Lesson Nine: Tempo * *Metronome*: A device used to measure beats per minute ($BPM$). * *Larghissimo*: Very, very slow ($24 ext{ BPM}$ or slower in $rac{4}{4}$). * *Grave*: Very slow ($25 ext{ - } 45 ext{ BPM}$). * *Largo*: Broadly ($40 ext{ - } 60 ext{ BPM}$). * *Lento*: Slowly ($45 ext{ - } 65 ext{ BPM}$). * *Larghetto*: Rather broadly ($60 ext{ - } 66 ext{ BPM}$). * *Adagio*: Slow and stately; "at ease" ($66 ext{ - } 76 ext{ BPM}$). * *Adagietto*: Slower than andante ($72 ext{ - } 76 ext{ BPM}$). * *Andante*: "Walking" tempo ($76 ext{ - } 108 ext{ BPM}$). * *Andantino*: Slightly faster than andante ($80 ext{ - } 108 ext{ BPM}$). * *Marcia moderato*: Moderately, in the style of a march ($83 ext{ - } 85 ext{ BPM}$). * *Andante moderato*: Between andante and moderato ($92 ext{ - } 112 ext{ BPM}$). * *Moderato*: Moderately ($108 ext{ - } 120 ext{ BPM}$). * *Allegretto*: Moderately fast ($112 ext{ - } 120 ext{ BPM}$). * *Allegro moderato*: Close to but not quite allegro ($116 ext{ - } 120 ext{ BPM}$). * *Allegro*: Fast, quickly, bright ($120 ext{ - } 168 ext{ BPM}$). * *Molto Allegro*: A fast allegro ($145 ext{ - } 168 ext{ BPM}$). * *Vivace*: Lively and fast ($168 ext{ - } 178 ext{ BPM}$). * *Vivacissimo*: Very fast and lively ($172 ext{ - } 176 ext{ BPM}$). * *Allegro vivace*: Very fast ($172 ext{ - } 176 ext{ BPM}$); also written as "allegrissimo." * *Presto*: Super fast ($168 ext{ - } 200 ext{ BPM}$). * *Prestissimo*: Faster than presto ($200 ext{ BPM}$ and over). * *Rallentando (rall.)*: Gradually slowing down. * *Ritardando (rit.)*: Holding back; gradually getting slower. * *Ritenuto*: Immediately slowing down (no abbreviation). * *Accelerando*: Gradually speeding up. * *Stringendo*: Another term for accelerando; "tightening" or pressing on faster. * *A piacere*: "At your pleasure"; the performer uses personal judgment for tempo/rhythm. * *A tempo*: Returning to the previous tempo. * *Calando*: Slowing down and getting softer. * *Mosso*: "Movement"; usually paired with "piu" (more) or "meno" (less). * *Rubato*: "Theft"; stealing time from one beat to lengthen or emphasize another. * *Stretto*: Faster tempo near the end of a section; sometimes indicates slowing slightly for resolution. * *Tempo primo*: Return to the original tempo of the piece. * *Cantabile*: "Singing"; a flowing, lyrical, not too fast tempo. * *Assai*: "Very much"; e.g., Allegro assai (very fast). * *Con*: "With"; used for style/articulation (e.g., con brio - with vigor; con dolcezza - with sweetness; con fuoco - with fire). * *Molto*: Much/very (e.g., molto allegro). * *Non troppo*: "Not too much" (e.g., allegro non troppo). * *Poco*: Slightly or a little. * *e interruzione*: Without pause or interruption. * *Subito*: Suddenly (e.g., subito allegro). # Lesson Ten: Dynamics and Articulation * *Senza*: Without (e.g.,