The Nature and Collaborative Process of Scientific Discovery

The Evolution of Scientific Methodology

• The scientific method is commonly taught as a linear sequence of six idealized steps:

  • Step 1: Make an observation that leads to a specific question.
  • Step 2: Formulate a hypothesis, which is a testable explanation or a reasonable prediction of a future outcome.
  • Step 3: Test the hypothesis through an experiment that is capable of being repeated.
  • Step 4: Analyze the results gathered from the experiment.
  • Step 5: Report the conclusions derived from the data.
  • Step 6: Use those conclusions to generate new hypotheses, making the process a cycle.

• In practice, actual science progresses less like a straight line and more like a series of "looping squiggles" where directions change unexpectedly.

  • Steps are often repeated or rearranged when experiments fail.
  • Scientists frequently backtrack to the beginning to gather more observations when data does not make sense.
  • Some observations require missing pieces of information to be understood; for example, the mechanism of how genes encode proteins could not be deciphered until the helix structure of DNA was revealed in $1953$.

Historical and Global Foundations of Knowledge

• The term "scientist" has only existed in the English language since the $19^{th}$ century, but the practice of observing the physical world is ancient.
  • Ancient India, Greece, and China possess records of medicine and natural history dating back hundreds and thousands of years.
  • Maya astronomers precisely tracked the movements of the sun, moon, and planets, creating calendars that are still utilized by their descendants today.
  • Indigenous cultures worldwide have maintained rich understandings of nature through close observation.
    • Indigenous Alaskans have documented thinning sea ice and declining salmon populations as a result of climate change.
    • Aboriginal people in Australia shared stories of "firehogs" (birds that spread fire by dropping flaming sticks into brush to flush out prey) long before professional scientists described the behavior in $2017$.

Collaborative Dynamics in Modern Research

• The stereotypical image of a solitary, stoic genius is inaccurate; scientific progress is typically the result of teams working together, sharing ideas, questions, and evidence.

  • Science acts as a "big group text" or an ongoing discussion where teams build upon the work of previous generations.

• Case Study: Doctor Louis Federico Leroy and his team in Argentina.

  • By the middle of the $20^{th}$ century, biologists began studying life on a microscopic scale. Leroy and his team investigated whether cells (the building blocks of life) functioned the same way outside of an organism as they did inside an intact organ.
  • The team demonstrated "scrappiness" and collaboration despite a lack of funds for specialized equipment.
  • To create a refrigerated centrifuge (a high-speed fluid separator), which was necessary to isolate cells without damaging them, they used inner tubes from car tires filled with water, ice, and salt.
  • This discovery allowed for the study of basic building blocks outside of living organisms, aiding the understanding of how organisms work and how to fight disease.
  • When Louis Federico Leroy won the Nobel Prize in $1970$, he attributed his success to the collaborative conversation of science, stating, "We hardly know even a little."

The Distinction Between Hypotheses, Theories, and Laws

• A scientific theory is not a mere speculation; it requires a very high bar for evidence.

  • Theories are based on strong consensus from the scientific community and a broad range of evidence.
  • Hypotheses are tested repeatedly and eventually linked together. As evidence accumulates, they form a "snowclusion" (a massive accumulation of evidence support).
  • The Big Bang Theory is an example of a theory that explains the universe's origin through a massive expansion. It continues to be refined through research into leftover energy from that expansion.

• A scientific law is a precise, universal statement describing something that always occurs in the physical world.

  • The First Law of Thermodynamics states that energy cannot be created or destroyed.
  • This law applies across plants, animals, and soil; while energy changes form, the total amount remains constant.

Peer Review and Data Literacy

• Peer review is the process by which scientific ideas are vetted before being published to the wider world.

  • Scientists submit their hypothesis, testing methods, and results for evaluation by other experts in the same field.
  • This process acts as a filter to catch mistakes, errors in logic, or outright fraud.

• Data literacy is defined as the ability to create, organize, understand, and communicate data (recorded observations).

  • High data literacy allows scientists to design experiments that produce reliable data and accurately interpret results, whether from their own work or that of others.

The Role of Models and Simulations

• Models are representations of scientific theories or processes used to clarify concepts that are difficult to observe directly.

  • Cell Membrane Example: While it can be seen under a microscope, it is a complex layer of three different kinds of molecules in perpetual motion.
    • Visual models use labeled, color-coded images to simplify microscope pictures.
    • Three-dimensional ($3D$) models provide a physical way to grasp the structure.
    • Mathematical models represent the movement of molecules through equations.

• Computational models allow for simulations that would be impossible in real life.

  • Computers can run experiments thousands of times to predict patterns such as:
    • The effects of earthquakes in different locations.
    • Future weather conditions.
    • The spread of diseases across populations.

Ethics and the Scope of Scientific Inquiry

• Science focuses on causes and effects within the observable, physical world, but some questions fall outside its scope, particularly those concerning morality and ethics.

  • Science can answer empirical questions like "Can we clone a mammoth?"
  • Science cannot answer normative questions like "Should we clone a mammoth?"

• Scientific discovery often links with philosophy and ethics to address complex questions. Additionally, scientific data informs policy decisions, such as using wolf population tracking to create conservation laws.

Questions & Discussion

• Q: What happens if a hard-boiled egg is put in a microwave?

  • A: The water inside the egg boils, builds up pressure, and causes the egg to explode. If the shell is removed first, the pressure may not build up enough to cause an explosion (though the result rated a $1/10$ and is not recommended).

• Q: Does science apply to mundane or humorous questions?

  • A: Yes, curiosity fuels scientific inquiry into all topics, including why cut grass smells like watermelon or how easy it is to slip on a banana peel (a common trope in cartoons and Mario Kart).

• Q: What does the word "science" actually mean?

  • A: It comes from a Latin verb meaning "to know."

• Q: How does science relate to daily decisions, such as physical risks?

  • A: Science cannot tell a person if they should attempt a skateboard trick, but it can explain the physical consequences to their leg if they fail.