China
The Industrial Revolution changed how people lived and worked, mainly in Europe, and had effects on the world.
Key points include:
Europeans had important technological advantages, especially in weapons, ships, and machinery, enabling them to dominate global trade.
They also had institutional advantages, like company structures, better property rights, and government-supported monopolies, which helped them expand into colonies and exploit resources.
There was major emphasis on developing science supported by the state, focusing on education and innovation for societal improvement.
Limitations for growth in Europe were similar to other crowded areas:
Instead of using more labor-intensive farming methods, Europe moved quickly to using machines, which meant stronger reliance on farming.
If Europe hadn’t developed agriculturally and industrially, it might have followed the same paths as China, Japan, or India, questioning ideas of European superiority.
Similar ecological challenges faced by all regions, like resource shortages and environmental issues, further argue against European exceptionalism.
The significant changes in the 19th century were due to several global factors enhancing Europe’s technology and institutions.
European countries could colonize the New World, establishing trade routes exchanging manufactured goods for raw materials, driving economic growth.
Many deadly diseases, like smallpox, severely reduced Native American populations, allowing for easier European colonization.
The African slave trade gave economic help to colonial powers but created moral issues affecting relationships with local people.
Global trade grew partly due to China’s high demand for American silver.
Britain benefited from rich coal deposits for its industries, unlike China, where coal was often found in less accessible areas.
The concept of 'Modern' China includes not just new social structures but also how outside influences drastically affected historical developments, beyond just traditional Chinese culture.
The Qing dynasty's decline was driven by both internal troubles (like revolts) and external pressures from foreign countries that forced a reevaluation of social and political systems in China, moving beyond simple Westernization.
Jesuit Missions in China began with:
St. Francis Xavier in 1552, which started European presence in China.
Matteo Ricci arrived in 1582 and became a key cultural bridge between Europe and China.
Ricci created the first Catholic church in Beijing and helped introduce Western teachings in fields like science and math, while also respecting local customs.
By the mid-19th century, the Catholic community in China grew significantly, but Jesuit influence declined due to disagreements within the Church about local customs and the Qing court's decreasing support.
Trade between Europe and China started with the Portuguese in 1513, establishing trading in Macau.
The Sino-Portuguese Treaty of 1887 formalized Portuguese control over Macau.
Trade with Spain flourished after the influx of South American silver.
British trading began in 1635, expanding significantly by the late 17th century in Guangzhou.
The Qing dynasty used a tributary system, viewing the Emperor as the Son of Heaven, where foreigners were seen as 'outer barbarians'.
Chinese goods like silk, porcelain, and tea were popular in Europe, but the Qing demanded silver, causing a trade deficit for European traders.
The introduction of opium in the early 1800s, initially accepted, later led to stricter controls and illegal trade increases.
The First Opium War began when the Qing stopped opium trade in 1838, prompting conflict with Britain.
Lin Zexu led anti-opium efforts, including destroying significant amounts of opium, which angered Britain.
The resulting military conflict led to the Nanjing Treaty of 1842, an unequal treaty that opened new ports, demanded reparations, ceded Hong Kong, and granted British legal powers in treaty ports, greatly altering China’s sovereignty.
The Second Opium War arose from British desires to change the Nanjing Treaty, leading to further concessions for foreign rights.
The Boxer Rebellion was a response to foreign influence and missionary activities, ultimately resulting in the Boxer Protocol of 1901, which imposed heavy penalties on China after its defeat.
After the Boxer Protocol, China faced severe challenges with financial strain, continued foreign military presence, and a weakened dynasty, prompting discussions on reform and revolution in Chinese society.