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Macromolecules: Carbohydrates

  • Roles of Sugars and Polymers

    • Provide energy (glucose)
    • Serve as structural components (cellulose in plants)

  • Monosaccharides

    • Basic unit of carbohydrates
    • General formula: CnH{2n}O_n
    • Examples: Glucose, Fructose
    • Properties: Sweet taste, soluble in water

  • Formation of Disaccharides and Polysaccharides

    • Monosaccharides linked via glycosidic bonds
    • Disaccharides: e.g., Sucrose (Glucose + Fructose)
    • Polysaccharides: e.g., Starch, Glycogen, Cellulose

  • Cellulose vs. Starch

    • Similarities: Both polymers of glucose
    • Differences:
    • Cellulose: Beta-glucose, structural role in plant cell walls
    • Starch: Alpha-glucose, energy storage in plants
    • Biological implications:
    • Cellulose is indigestible for most animals, while starch can be broken down for energy.

Macromolecules: Nucleic Acids

  • Functions of Nucleotides and Nucleic Acids

    • Energy carriers (ATP)
    • Genetic information storage and transfer: DNA and RNA

  • Components of Nucleotides

    • Nitrogenous base (A, T, C, G in DNA; A, U, C, G in RNA)
    • Pentose sugar (Ribose in RNA, Deoxyribose in DNA)
    • Phosphate group

  • Structural Representation

    • Draw and number carbon atoms in Ribose and Deoxyribose

  • Nucleotide Formation

    • Diagram showing connection of nitrogenous base, pentose sugar, and phosphate group

  • Linking by Phosphodiester Bonds

    • Formation of nucleic acid polymers
    • Ends: 5' and 3' phosphorylation

  • DNA Double Helix Structure

    • Antiparallel strands
    • Hydrogen bonds between complementary bases

Macromolecules: Lipids

  • Chemical Characteristics of Lipids

    • Hydrophobic properties
    • Diverse structures including triglycerides, phospholipids, and steroids

  • Major Classes of Lipids

    • Triglycerides: Energy storage
    • Phospholipids: Components of cell membranes
    • Steroids: Hormones, e.g., cholesterol

  • Structures

    • Glycerol + fatty acids = Triglyceride structure
    • Phospholipid structure and micelle/bilayer formation in water

  • Saturation and Fluidity

    • Influence of saturated/unsaturated fatty acid tails on membrane fluidity

Enzymes and Metabolism

  • Thermodynamics

    • First law: Energy cannot be created or destroyed
    • Second law: Entropy of the universe always increases

  • Entropy, Enthalpy, Free Energy

    • Relationship between these properties influence biochemical processes

  • Reactions

    • Exergonic: Releases energy; spontaneous
    • Endergonic: Requires energy input; not spontaneous

  • ATP as Energy Currency

    • Hydrolysis of ATP: Drives cellular work via exergonic reactions

  • Enzyme Function

    • Catalysts that lower activation energy (E_A) of reactions
    • Regulatory mechanisms: competitive & non-competitive inhibitors, allosteric regulation
    • Effects on ΔG, ΔH, and ΔS

Introduction to Cells

  • Prokaryotic vs Eukaryotic Cells

    • Prokaryotic: Simple, no nucleus (e.g., bacteria)
    • Eukaryotic: Complex, with organelles and nucleus (e.g., animals, plants)

  • Major Eukaryotic Organelles

    • Mitochondria: Energy production
    • Chloroplasts: Photosynthesis (plants)
    • Nucleus: Genetic information storage

  • Fluid Mosaic Model

    • Structure of biological membranes
    • Semi-permeable, composed of lipids and proteins

Transport Across Biological Membranes

  • Diffusion Factors

    • Size, polarity, and charge of solutes impact diffusion

  • Transport Mechanisms

    • Passive vs. facilitated diffusion (no energy)
    • Active transport (energy required, e.g., pumps)

  • Osmosis

    • Movement of water influenced by solute concentration

  • Endocytosis and Exocytosis

    • Mechanisms for transporting materials into (endocytosis) and out (exocytosis) of cells.
    • Types: Phagocytosis, pinocytosis, receptor-mediated endocytosis

The Cytoskeleton

  • Cytoskeletal Networks

    • Microtubules, Microfilaments, Intermediate filaments: Structure and function

  • Movement of Cargo

    • Motor proteins (e.g., Kinesin and Dynein) transport materials along microtubules

  • Cell Division

    • Role in cell movement and division, including mitotic spindle formation

Asexual Reproduction and Mitosis

  • Asexual Reproduction

    • Binary fission in prokaryotes
    • Mitosis in eukaryotes with stages: Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase

  • Cell Cycle

    • Stages: G1, S, G2, and Mitosis
    • Regulation by cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases (Cdks)

  • Key Terms

    • Chromosome, Chromatid, Centromere, Cytokinesis, Nucleolus, Telomere
    • Nucleosomes and chromatin structure management

  • Visualizations

    • Recognize and draw stages of mitosis, identify different phases and relevant structures.