The Americas, Europe, and Africa Before 1492
Anglo-American Identity
Anglo-American colonists strongly identified as part of the British Empire, politically, militarily, religiously (as Protestants), intellectually, and racially.
The Royall family portrait exemplifies the colonial American gentry of the 18th century, showcasing their British identity through fashions, hairstyles, and furnishings.
Charles II and the Restoration Colonies
Learning Objectives
Analyze the causes and consequences of the Restoration
Identify the Restoration colonies and their role in the expansion of the Empire
Charles II strengthened England's global power by establishing the Restoration colonies: New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and the Carolinas, taken from the Dutch.
He enacted the mercantilist Navigation Acts to maximize economic benefit from overseas possessions, but enforcement was initially lax.
Charles II's Ascent to Power:
Charles I married Henrietta Maria, a French Catholic princess, opposed by English Protestants (Puritans).
Charles I suspended Parliament in 1629 for eleven years due to conflicts over taxes and his ties to Catholicism.
The English Civil War (1642-1649) was fought between Charles I and Royalists against Oliver Cromwell and Parliamentary forces.
Charles I was beheaded in 1649; England became a republic headed by Oliver Cromwell.
The English interregnum was the period without a king.
Growing dissatisfaction with Cromwell led to the Restoration, where Charles II was invited back to the throne in 1660.
Restoration Colonies:
Committed to expanding England’s possessions, Charles II established the Carolinas, New Jersey, New York, and Pennsylvania.
These began as proprietary colonies, granted by the king to individuals or groups.
The Carolinas:
Charles II aimed to control the area between Virginia and Spanish Florida.
In 1663, he granted a royal charter to eight proprietors to govern Carolina.
English plantation owners from Barbados settled in southern Carolina, establishing Charles Town (Charleston) in 1670.
Charles Town produced livestock for export to the West Indies.
Northern Carolina produced tar and pitch for waterproofing ships.
Political disagreements led to the division into North and South Carolina in 1729.
South Carolina produced rice and indigo.
North Carolina produced naval supplies and tobacco, with Virginians expanding their tobacco holdings there.
Slavery in the Carolinas:
Slavery expanded rapidly due to migrants from Barbados.
By the late 1600s, wealthy rice planters relied on enslaved labor, dominating South Carolina.
By 1715, South Carolina had a Black majority due to the number of enslaved people.
Slave laws based on Barbados slave codes were established in the early 1700s, reducing Africans to property.
Native American Conflicts:
Native populations suffered from European diseases.
They became dependent on European goods, trading deerskins and captives for guns, leading to trade deficits.
English expansion into Native American lands led to the Yamasee War (1715–1718), an effort to drive away Europeans.
The Cherokee allied with the English, leading to the coalition’s defeat.
The Yamasee War highlights the role of native peoples in colonial struggles and disunity between native groups.
New York and New Jersey:
English takeover of New Netherland stemmed from rivalry with the Dutch.
During the Second Anglo-Dutch War (1664–1667), the English seized New Netherland.
Charles II gave the colony to his brother James, Duke of York (later James II), renaming it New York.
The Dutch briefly recaptured the colony in 1673 during the Third Anglo-Dutch War, but the English regained control.
Colonists convened a local representative legislature in 1683, which established the Charter of Liberties and Privileges, guaranteeing rights like trial by jury and representative government.
The English continued the Dutch patroonship system, granting large estates to favored families.
New York City featured a diverse population, including Dutch, English, French Protestants (Huguenots), Jews, Puritans, Quakers, Anglicans, and enslaved people.
Native American Influence in New York:
The Iroquois Confederacy (Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, and Seneca) pursued a policy of neutrality between the English and French in the early 1700s.
They maintained their own government and villages while benefiting from trade with both powers.
Pennsylvania:
Pennsylvania, meaning “Penn’s Woods,” was created in 1681 when Charles II granted it to William Penn to settle a debt.
William Penn’s father had helped take Jamaica from the Spanish.
Early colonists migrated for religious reasons.
William Penn was a Quaker, belonging to the Society of Friends.
George Fox founded the Society of Friends in the late 1640s, emphasizing the “inner light” and social equality.
Quakers rejected worldly rank, addressing everyone as equals.
Quakers faced persecution in England and other colonies, leading them to settle in Pennsylvania and New Jersey.
Pennsylvania allowed religious tolerance, unlike Puritan New England.
Penn promised fifty acres of land to immigrants who completed their service, leading to a reliance on indentured servants.
Quaker Principles and Native Relations:
Quakerism promotes pacifism, leading William Penn to establish friendly relations with local native peoples.
He bought land fairly from the Lenni Lenape (Delaware) tribe.
He signed a treaty with the Susquehannocks in 1701 to avoid war.
Pennsylvania did not experience war with native peoples during its early history.
Philadelphia's Growth:
Philadelphia grew rapidly as an important port city.
Quaker merchants established contacts throughout the Atlantic world and participated in the slave trade.
Some Quakers opposed slavery due to their belief in the “inner light”.
Philadelphia attracted immigrants from England and Europe.
Immigrants, including Germans and Scotch-Irish, improved their lives in Pennsylvania, while enslaved Africans fared poorly.
Advertisement for Escaped Prisoners:
Advertisement from "John Wilson, Goaler" offers reward for capturing escaped prisoners (1722).
Descriptions of the men provide insights into life in colonial Philadelphia, including their clothing, origins, and occupations.
The Navigation Acts aimed to control trade with American colonies.
The 1651 Navigation Ordinance required English ships for trade between England and the colonies.
It listed "enumerated articles" (sugar, tobacco, indigo, rice, molasses, naval stores) that could only be transported to England or English colonies.
Charles II approved the 1660 Navigation Act to ensure a monopoly on imports from the colonies.
Other Navigation Acts:
The 1663 Staple Act barred colonists from importing non-English goods, creating a monopoly for English exporters.
The 1673 Plantation Duties Act taxed enumerated articles exported between colonies, targeting New Englanders who traded for molasses from the West Indies.
The Lords of Trade (1675) aimed to strengthen ties between colonial governments and the crown.
The 1696 Navigation Act established the Board of Trade and vice-admiralty courts to prosecute customs violators without a jury.
Customs officials were empowered with “writs of assistance” to search for smuggled goods.
Great Britain exercised lax control over the colonies due to Prime Minister Robert Walpole's policy of salutary neglect (1721–1742).
Colonial Trade and the Molasses Act:
Colonists built their own fleets and engaged in trade.
The 1733 Molasses Act placed a duty on sugar, rum, and molasses from non-British sources to favor British West Indian producers.
The act was not enforced, and New Englanders smuggled these items from French and Dutch islands.
The Glorious Revolution and the English Empire
Learning Objectives
Identify the causes of the Glorious Revolution
Explain the outcomes of the Glorious Revolution
Opposition to James II, led by the Whigs, resulted in the Glorious Revolution of 1688–1689.
It paved the way for the Protestant reign of William of Orange and his wife Mary.
James II and the Glorious Revolution:
James II sought to emulate Louis XIV by centralizing power and practicing Roman Catholicism.
He modernized the army and navy, raising concerns about his intentions.
The Dominion of New England was created in 1686, consolidating New England colonies, New York, and New Jersey under Sir Edmund Andros.
Andros enforced the Navigation Acts and questioned land titles, causing unease among colonists.
The Whigs deposed James II in the Glorious Revolution, and he fled to France.
William III and Mary II ascended the throne in 1689.
Bostonians overthrew the Dominion government and jailed Andros.
Jacob Leisler led a revolt in New York, assuming the role of governor, but was later tried for treason and executed.
England restored control over New York in 1691.
The Glorious Revolution was remembered as a defense of English liberty against tyranny.
English Liberty:
The Glorious Revolution led to a limited monarchy and protection for English subjects.
The 1689 Bill of Rights established Parliament’s independence and protected rights like freedom of speech, regular elections, and the right to petition the king.
It also guaranteed trial by jury and habeas corpus.
John Locke's Influence:
John Locke argued that government was a contract between leaders and people and that representative government should protect “life, liberty and property.”
Locke rejected the divine right of kings and advocated for Parliament with a limited monarchy.
Locke’s philosophy influenced future generations of colonists.
Religious Toleration:
The English Toleration Act of 1689 allowed greater religious diversity, granting tolerance to nonconformist Trinitarian Protestants such as Baptists and Congregationalists.
Excludes Catholics from political power.
Extended to the British colonies, where some colonies refused to establish an official church, fostering religious diversity.
An Empire of Slavery and the Consumer Revolution
Learning Objectives
Analyze the role slavery played in the history and economy of the British Empire
Explain the effects of the 1739 Stono Rebellion and the 1741 New York Conspiracy Trials
Describe the consumer revolution and its effect on the life of the colonial gentry and other settlers
Slavery's Role:
Slavery was a cornerstone of the British Empire in the 18th century, influencing colonial thought and culture.
White colonists gained an exaggerated sense of status by contrasting their status with enslaved Black people.
African slavery gave White colonists a shared racial bond and identity.
Slavery and the Stono Rebellion:
The transport of enslaved Africans to the American colonies accelerated in the second half of the 17th century.
Charles II created the Royal African Company in 1660 to trade in enslaved people.
James II led the company before becoming king.
Between 1672 and 1713, the company bought 125,000 captives, losing 20 percent to death on the Middle Passage.
Royal African Company's Monopoly:
The Royal African Company’s monopoly ended in 1689, increasing English merchants' involvement in the slave trade.
Enslaved Africans formed new communities and adhered to traditional customs.
Resistance included defying captors and running away.
Maroon Communities and Rebellions:
Escaped enslaved people formed “maroon” communities to resist recapture.
The Stono Rebellion (1739) involved a literate Angolan named Jemmy leading an armed insurrection in South Carolina.
The rebellion was suppressed, and rebels were executed or sold to the West Indies.
South Carolina passed the Negro Act of 1740, restricting enslaved people’s behavior.
The New York Conspiracy Trials of 1741:
New York City had ethnic diversity and tensions between enslaved and free populations.
In 1741, fires broke out in the city, leading to rumors of a massive revolt by enslaved people.
Authorities interrogated and accused nearly two hundred enslaved people of conspiracy.
Seventeen New Yorkers were executed, and seventy were sold to the West Indies.
Little evidence supported the existence of an elaborate conspiracy.
Colonial Gentry and the Consumer Revolution:
Reliance on indentured servitude and slavery led to a wealthy colonial class (gentry).
The British American gentry modeled themselves on the English aristocracy.
Increased availability of consumer goods from England led to the consumer revolution.
Ordinary settlers also participated in consumer spending.
Printed Materials and Novels:
Printed materials became widely available.
Journals, books, and pamphlets linked the Empire through shared tastes and ideas.
Cato’s Letters and the Spectator were popular publications.
Novels, such as Robinson Crusoe and Pamela, appeared, and female readers had access to interpret what they read.
The Great Awakening and the Enlightenment
Learning Objectives
Explain the significance of the Great Awakening
Describe the genesis, central ideas, and effects of the Enlightenment in British North America
The Great Awakening and the Enlightenment strengthened Anglo-American colonists’ connection to Great Britain.
The First Great Awakening
The First Great Awakening was a Protestant revivalist movement in the 18th century.
Evangelists from various Protestant denominations emphasized emotional religiosity over formal worship.
They preached personal and experiential faith, offering a welcome message to women, the young, and the lower social classes.
Those who followed the evangelical message were known as "New Lights", while those who rejected it were known as "Old Lights".
Elite ministers opposed the new revivalism.
Key Figures and Events:
James Davenport urged listeners to burn books and clothes as a sign of casting off sin.
Theodorus Frelinghuysen inspired revivalism in New Jersey.
Gilbert Tennent sparked a Presbyterian revival in the Middle Colonies and founded a seminary.
Jonathan Edwards led evangelical fervor in Northampton, Massachusetts, using vivid depictions of hell.
George Whitefield, an Anglican minister, electrified colonial listeners with his brilliant oratory.
Effects of the Great Awakening:
It resulted in the rise of new Protestant denominations (Methodists, Presbyterians, and Baptists).
It led to decline in influence of older Protestant groups (Anglicans, Congregationalists, and Quakers).
It provided a shared experience in the 18th-century British Empire.
The Enlightenment
The Enlightenment, or the Age of Reason, was an intellectual and cultural movement that emphasized reason over superstition and science over blind faith.
Enlightenment thinkers questioned accepted knowledge and spread ideas about openness, investigation, and religious tolerance.
It was a turning point in Western civilization.
Dominant Ideas:
Rationalism: Humans can use reason to gain knowledge
Empiricism: Knowledge comes from experience and observation
Progressivism: Humans can make unlimited progress through reason.
Cosmopolitanism: Enlightenment thinkers viewed themselves as citizens of the world.
The Freemasons
The Freemasons were a fraternal society that advocated Enlightenment principles.
It originated in London coffeehouses.
Benjamin Franklin embodied the Enlightenment in British America.
Benjamin Franklin's Contributions
Benjamin Franklin’s early Life: Franklin was born in Boston in 1706. In 1718 he was apprenticed to his brother to work in a print shop, where he learned how to be a good writer by copying the style he found in the Spectator, which his brother printed. At the age of seventeen, the independent-minded Franklin ran away, eventually ending up in Quaker Philadelphia.
He published the Pennsylvania Gazette and Poor Richard: An Almanack, and advanced deism, believing in a God who created the world but does not intervene in it.
He established a reading library, the American Philosophical Society, and the University of Pennsylvania
along with Pennsylvania Hospital.
He advanced theories of electricity. He observed that lightning strikes tended to hit metal objects and reasoned that he could therefore direct lightning through the placement of metal objects during an electrical storm. He used this knowledge to advocate the use of lightning rods
Franklin's Memoir laid the foundation for the American Dream of upward social mobility.
The Founding of Georgia
The reach of Enlightenment was broad because it prompted the founding of a new colony, Georgia.
James Oglethorpe petitioned King George II for a charter to start a new colony.
The charter to Oglethorpe and twenty like-minded proprietors granted them Georgia in 1732.
Oglethorpe led the settlement of the colony, which was called Georgia in honor of the king and in 1733, he and 113 immigrants arrived on the ship Anne.
Followed the ideals of the Age of Reason, seeing it as a place for England’s “worthy poor” to start anew.
To encourage industry, he gave each male immigrant and provided for “an agrarian model of sustenance while sustaining egalitarian values holding all men as equal.