APHUG Midterm

Chapter 1: Thinking Geographically


1. Cartography- the study and practice of making maps

  • Map types (isoline, choropleth, cartogram, etc.)

    • isoline- continuous lines joining points of the same value 

    • chloropleth- uses tones or colors to represent spatial data as averages 

    • cartogram- thematic mapping variable instead of land area or distance, map geometry is distorted

    • graduated symbol- map with symbols that change in size according to their value

    • dot maps- uses points to show precise locations of specific observations

    • thematic map- displays one of more variables in an area

    • political map- shows governmental boundaries

    • physical map- shows landforms

    • topographic map- uses isoline to represent constant elevation


  • Map projection- 3D to 2D so it is distorted


  • GPS, GIS, Remote sensing, VGI

    • GPS- global positioning system, determines the precise location of something on Earth

    • GIS- geographic information system, computer that captures, stores, query, analyzes, and displays geographic data 

    • Remote sensing- the acquisition of data about Earth's surface from a satellite orbiting Earth or from other long-distance methods

    • VGI- Volunteered geographic information, harnessing of tools to create, assemble, and disseminate geographic data provided voluntarily by individuals


2. Uniqueness of Places

  • Site vs. situation

    • Site- the physical character of a place

    • Situation- the location of a place relative to other places

3. Regions (and examples)

  • Formal- an area within which everyone shares in common one or more distinctive characteristics

  • Functional (Nodal)- an area organized around a node or focal point

  • Vernacular (Perceptual)- a place that people believe exists as a part of their cultural identity


4. Globalization- a force of process that involves the entire world and results in making something worldwide in scope

  • Causes and effects

    • Exchange of ideas, values, and practices across different societies. This interconnectedness leads to cultural diffusion, where elements like language, food, fashion, and customs are adopted or adapted by various cultures.


  • Distance decay vs space-time compression/convergence

    • Distance decay- the diminishing in importance and eventual disappearence of a phenomenon with increasing distance from its origin

    • Space time compression-a term applied by geographers to describe the reduction in the time it takes for something to reach another place

5. Diffusion- the process by which a characteristic spreads across space from one place to another over time

  • Relocation Diffusion- the spread of an idea through physical movement of people from one place to another

  • Expansion Diffusion- the spread of a feature from one place to another in a snowballing process

    • Contagious- the rapid, widespread diffusion of a characteristic throughout the population

  • Hierarchical- the spread of an idea from persons or nodes of authority or power to other persons or places

  • Stimulus- the spread of an underlying principle, even though a characteristic itself apparently fails to diffuse


6. Culture

  • Cultural Landscape- a combination of cultural features, economic features, and physical features

  • Cultural Ecology- the geographic study of human-environment relationships

    • Environmental Determinism- an approach on how the physical environment caused social development

  • Possibilism- the theory that the physical environment may set limits on human actions, but people have the ability to adjust the physical environment and choose a course of action from many alternatives


  • Assimilation vs. acculturation vs. syncretism

    • Assimilation- the process of absorbing, incorporating, or making similar

    • Acculturation- cultural modification of an individual, group, or people by adapting to or borrowing traits from another culture

    • Syncretism- the blending of different beliefs, practices, and cultural elements to form a new, cohesive system




Chapter 2: Population & Health


1. Most populated countries and regions in the world (top countries and concentrations)

1. India

2. China

3. USA

4. Indonesia

5. Pakistan

Concentrations of people in East Asia, South Asia, Europe, and Southeast Asia.


2. Arithmetic vs. physiological vs. agricultural density

  • Arithmetic- The total number of people divided by the total land area

  • Physiological- The number of people per unit of area of arable land

  • Agricultural- The ratio of the number of farmers to the total amount of arable land


3. Demographic Statistics (and their relationship to one another)

  • Natural Increase Rate- The percentage growth of a population in a year, computed as the crude birth rate minus the crude death rate. High in LDCs

  • Crude Birth Rate- the number of live births yearly per thousand people in a population- Higher in LDCs

  • Crude Death Rate- The number of deaths per year per 1,000 people. Higher in LDCs

  • Total Fertility Rate- an estimate of the average number of children born to each female in her childbearing years


4. Demographic Transition Model and the characteristics of each stage (CDR relative to CBR, NIR, factors that contribute to growth/decline)

  • Stage 1- hunter/gatherer societies. Low growth rate High CDR and CBR- No countries


  • Stage 2- Lower CDR, Higher CBR and High Growth. New production techniques increased the nation's food supply and generated money that was spent on improvements in public health.


  • Stage 3- Late 19th century; decreasing birth rate; low death rate; better infant mortality rate; moderate growth; beginning of Medical Revolution; large migration to New World 


  • Stage 4- 20th century; low birth rate; low death rate; low growth; stabilization; urbanization and falling birth rates


  • Stage 5- birth rate is slowly decreasing whilst the death rate is slowing increasing resulting in a slight drop in population


5. Population pyramids and their relation to stages in the Demographic Transition Model


6. Epidemiologic Transition and the major causes of death from each stage

  • Stage 1- Major Causes of Death: Infectious diseases, pandemics, and famine. Common examples include the Black Plague and smallpox.

Characteristics: High mortality rates due to poor sanitation, lack of medical knowledge, and widespread malnutrition.


  • Stage 2- Major Causes of Death: Decline in infectious diseases due to improvements in sanitation, medicine, and infrastructure, but some diseases like cholera remain significant.

Characteristics: Death rates decline sharply as public health measures improve, leading to population growth.

  • Stage 3- Major Causes of Death: Chronic and degenerative diseases such as heart disease, cancer, and diabetes.

Characteristics: Lifestyle changes, aging populations, and urbanization lead to a shift from infectious to non-communicable diseases.


  • Stage 4- Major Causes of Death: Same chronic diseases as Stage 3, but improved medical treatments extend life expectancy.

Characteristics: Focus on prevention and management of chronic illnesses, better healthcare, and advanced technology.


  • Stage 5- Major Causes of Death: Return of infectious diseases due to factors like antibiotic resistance, globalization, and climate change.

Characteristics: Increased vulnerability to pandemics (e.g., COVID-19), new strains of diseases, and challenges in healthcare systems.


7. Malthusian Theory- English economist: 

Said that population tends to increase more rapidly than food supplies. Right becasue population is growing rapidly. Wrong becasue even though population is high, world food production has grown at a faster rate than the NIR.


8. Government policy regarding population (especially pronatalist and antinatalist policies)

Pronatalist Policies:

Aim to encourage population growth by increasing birth rates. Common in countries with aging populations or declining fertility rates (e.g., Japan, South Korea, France). Policies include financial incentives, parental leave benefits, subsidized childcare, and housing assistance for families.


Antinatalist Policies:

Aim to reduce population growth by lowering birth rates.Common in countries with overpopulation concerns (e.g., China, India in the past). Policies include family planning programs, access to contraception, and, in extreme cases, measures like China's former "One-Child Policy.


Chapter 3: Migration


1. Economic, environmental, and political push and pull factors (and examples for each)

  • push factor- causes people to leave

  • pull factor- attracts migrants

  • economic pull- new jobs

  • economic push- high unemployment

  • environmental pull- warm areas

  • environmental push- flooding

  • policial pull- political stability

  • political push- political corruption

2. Internally displaced people (IDPs) vs. Refugees

  • IDP- People forced to migrate for reasons like refugees, but don't migrate internationally

  • Refugees- People who are forced to migrate from their home country and cannot return for fear of persecution because of their race, religion, nationality, membership in a social group, or political opinion

3. Trends in U.S. immigration history (countries represented, reasons for peaks and drops)

  • Colonial Period- Countries Represented: Primarily England, Africa (via slavery)

Reasons: Economic opportunity, religious freedom, and forced migration (slavery)


  • Early 19th century- Countries Represented: Ireland and Germany.

Reasons: Potato famine in Ireland, political unrest, and economic opportunities in the U.S.


  • Mid 19th century- Countries Represented: Germany, Ireland, and China

Reasons: Economic opportunities during industrialization and westward expansion, as well as famine and political instability


  • Turn of the 20th century- Countries Represented: Southern and Eastern Europe (Italy, Poland, Russia).

Reasons: Industrial jobs, escape from persecution (e.g., Jewish immigrants from Russia), and poverty


  • Mid 20th century- Countries Represented: Latin America, Asia, and Europe.

Reasons: Post-WWII rebuilding, economic opportunities, and refugee resettlement programs


  • 21st century- Countries Represented: Latin America, Asia, and Africa.

Reasons: Family reunification, economic opportunities, and political asylum



4. U.S. migration policy history

  • 19th Century:

    • Open-door policy allowed relatively unrestricted immigration.

    • Restrictions began with the Chinese Exclusion Act (1882).

  • 20th Century:

    • Quota Acts (1920s) limited immigration from specific countries.

    • Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 eliminated quotas based on national origins and emphasized family reunification and skilled workers.

  • 21st Century:

    • Focus on border security, undocumented immigration, and changes to refugee and asylum policies.

    • Debate over comprehensive immigration reform remains ongoing.

5. Patterns of intraregional migration

  • Movement from rural to urban areas in search of economic opportunities.

  • Suburbanization during the mid-20th century as people moved out of urban cores for more space and better living conditions.

6. Migration jargon:

  • brain drain- The emigration of highly skilled or educated individuals from one country to another, often leaving the origin country with a shortage of talent.


  • chain migration/family-based migration- Migration of individuals to a location based on the presence of relatives or community members who previously migrated.


  • intervening obstacles/opportunities- Factors that either hinder (e.g., strict immigration laws, geographic barriers) or encourage (e.g., job opportunities, safety) migration.


  • remittances- Money sent by migrants to their families in their home countries, often a vital source of income for developing nations.


  • guest/seasonal workers vs. unauthorized immigrants- emporary workers invited to fill labor shortages, especially in agriculture or construction.

Unauthorized Immigrants: Individuals who enter or remain in a country without legal authorization, often seeking better economic opportunities

Chapter 4: Culture & Social Media


1. Folk culture and popular culture effects on the cultural landscape

Folk Culture:

  • Creates unique, localized cultural landscapes closely tied to the physical environment and traditions. Examples include handmade crafts, vernacular architecture (e.g., adobe homes in arid regions), and small-scale agriculture.

  • Reflects environmental adaptation and heritage preservation, maintaining distinct regional identities.

Popular Culture:

  • Produces uniform, globalized cultural landscapes, often dominated by commercialism and mass media. Examples include fast-food chains, shopping malls, and urban skylines.

  • Leads to cultural homogenization but may also introduce modern infrastructure and connectivity.

2. Folk culture vs. popular culture (understand “the why” behind each of the following)

  • Characteristics

    • Folk Culture: Rooted in tradition, conservative, and community-based. Practices are static and vary significantly between regions.

    • Popular Culture: Dynamic, driven by consumerism and media, and widely accessible to diverse populations. Trends change rapidly.


  • Development

    • Folk Culture: Develops through local customs, environment, and isolation, fostering unique traditions.

    • Popular Culture: Emerges through innovation, urbanization, and globalization, often shaped by large-scale production and distribution.


  • Diffusion

    • Folk Culture: Spreads through relocation diffusion, often confined to small geographic areas.

    • Popular Culture: Spreads through hierarchical diffusion via media, advertising, and global trade networks.


3. Electronic media/communications technology and their impact on culture

  • Facilitates the rapid spread of popular culture, eroding regional distinctions and introducing new global trends.

  • Enables marginalized groups to share folk culture and preserve traditions digitally, providing global exposure.

  • Risks include the dominance of a few cultures, digital divides, and the loss of traditional practices due to cultural homogenization.



4. Cultural convergence/divergence

Cultural Convergence:

  • Occurs when cultures become more similar due to globalization, trade, and shared technologies (e.g., worldwide adoption of fast fashion or English as a global language).

Cultural Divergence:

  • Happens when groups resist external influences to maintain their distinct identity (e.g., indigenous groups preserving languages or rituals in response to globalization).




Chapter 5: Languages


1. The most spoken languages in the world (native speakers) and the language family of each

  • Mandarin Chinese: Sino-Tibetan family.

  • Spanish: Indo-European family (Romance branch).

  • English: Indo-European family (Germanic branch).

  • Hindi: Indo-European family (Indo-Iranian branch).

  • Arabic: Afro-Asiatic family.

  • Bengali: Indo-European family (Indo-Iranian branch).

2. Formation of languages

  • Result of geographic separation, migration, and cultural evolution.

  • Influenced by conquests, trade, and isolation.

  • Divergence from proto-languages leads to distinct languages over time.


3. Indo-European Language Family—major branches, major language of each branch, and distribution

  • Indo-Iranian

    • Major Language: Hindi.

    • Distribution: South Asia.

  • Germanic

    • Major Language: English.

    • Distribution: Europe, North America, Australia.

  • Romance

    • Major Language: Spanish.

    • Distribution: Latin America, Europe.


  • Balto-Slavic

    • Major Language: Russian.

    • Distribution: Eastern Europe, Central Asia.


4. Nomadic Warrior vs Sedentary Farmer Theories

  • Nomadic Warrior Theory:

    • Argues that Proto-Indo-European spread through conquest by nomadic Kurgan people from the steppes of modern-day Ukraine and Russia (circa 4000-2500 BCE).

    • Their military advantage (e.g., use of horses and chariots) enabled them to dominate and spread their language.

  • Sedentary Farmer Theory:

    • Suggests that Proto-Indo-European diffused peacefully through agricultural practices by Anatolian farmers (present-day Turkey) around 6000 BCE.

    • Farming innovations allowed population growth and gradual language spread via trade and migration.


5. English

  • Groups that contributed to the creation of the language in England

    • Anglo-Saxons: Germanic tribes (Angles, Saxons, and Jutes) brought early forms of English in the 5th century.

    • Vikings: Norse invaders contributed Old Norse vocabulary.

    • Normans: Norman Conquest (1066) introduced a significant number of French words and Latin influence.

6. (Language as a) centripetal/centrifugal force:

Centripetal Force:

  • A shared language can unite people by fostering a sense of national identity and cohesion. For example, English in the United States serves as a common medium of communication for a diverse population. Similarly, Swahili acts as a unifying language in East Africa.

Centrifugal Force:

  • Language differences can create divisions within a country or region, leading to conflict or social fragmentation. For instance, in Belgium, the division between Dutch-speaking Flanders and French-speaking Wallonia has contributed to political tensions.


7. Lingua franca vs. pidgin vs. creole languages (and examples of each)

Lingua Franca:

  • A common language used for communication between speakers of different native languages, especially in trade or diplomacy.

  • Example: English serves as a global lingua franca for business and international relations.

Pidgin Language:

  • A simplified and limited form of communication that develops between groups without a common language, often for trade purposes. It lacks native speakers and has a rudimentary grammar.

  • Example: Tok Pisin in Papua New Guinea originated as a pidgin but has since evolved.

Creole Language:

  • A fully developed language that arises from the mixing of a colonizer’s language with indigenous languages. Unlike pidgins, creoles have native speakers and a more complex grammar.

  • Example: Haitian Creole, which blends French with African languages.


Chapter 6: Religions


1. Differences between ethnic and universalizing religions (and the religions belonging to each category)

Ethnic Religions:

  • Appeal primarily to a specific group of people or culture.

  • Limited diffusion and tied to specific geographic locations.

  • Examples: Hinduism, Judaism, Shintoism.

Universalizing Religions:

  • Seek to appeal to all people, regardless of culture or location.

  • Actively spread through missionaries and conversion.

  • Examples: Christianity, Islam, Buddhism.


2. The origin, diffusion, current and past distribution, founders/prophets, major branches, core beliefs (including monotheistic or polytheistic), and the unique cultural landscapes of:


  • Christianity

    • Origin: Founded in the 1st century CE in the Roman province of Judea.

    • Diffusion: Spread through Roman Empire, European colonization, and missionary work.

    • Current Distribution: Largest religion worldwide; dominant in the Americas, Europe, Sub-Saharan Africa, and parts of Asia.

    • Founders/Prophets: Jesus Christ.

    • Major Branches: Catholicism, Protestantism, Eastern Orthodoxy.

    • Core Beliefs: Monotheistic, belief in Jesus as the Son of God and Savior, resurrection, and salvation through faith.

    • Cultural Landscape: Churches, cathedrals, crosses, holidays like Christmas and Easter.

  • Islam

    • Origin: 7th century CE in Mecca and Medina (Saudi Arabia).

    • Diffusion: Spread through conquests, trade, and missionary activities.

    • Current Distribution: Predominantly in the Middle East, North Africa, South Asia, and Southeast Asia.

    • Founders/Prophets: Prophet Muhammad.

    • Major Branches: Sunni, Shia.

    • Core Beliefs: Monotheistic, belief in Allah, the Quran as holy scripture, Five Pillars of Islam.

    • Cultural Landscape: Mosques, minarets, crescent moon symbols, and pilgrimage sites like Mecca.


  • Hinduism

    • Origin: Ancient Indus Valley Civilization (~1500 BCE).

    • Diffusion: Limited diffusion; concentrated in India and Nepal.

    • Current Distribution: Predominantly in South Asia.

    • Founders/Prophets: No single founder; sacred texts include Vedas and Upanishads.

    • Major Branches: Shaivism, Vaishnavism, Shaktism.

    • Core Beliefs: Polytheistic, belief in karma, dharma, reincarnation, moksha.

    • Cultural Landscape: Temples, shrines, river Ganges as a holy site.


  • Buddhism

    • Origin: 5th-6th century BCE in India (modern-day Nepal).

    • Diffusion: Spread through trade routes, missionary efforts in Asia.

    • Current Distribution: East Asia, Southeast Asia, and some parts of South Asia.

    • Founders/Prophets: Siddhartha Gautama (Buddha).

    • Major Branches: Theravada, Mahayana, Vajrayana.

    • Core Beliefs: Neither monotheistic nor polytheistic, Four Noble Truths, Eightfold Path, enlightenment (nirvana).

    • Cultural Landscape: Pagodas, stupas, monasteries, meditation sites.


  • Judaism

    • Origin: 2nd millennium BCE in the Levant (modern-day Israel/Palestine).

    • Diffusion: Diaspora due to conquests and persecution.

    • Current Distribution: United States, Israel, and scattered communities worldwide.

    • Founders/Prophets: Abraham, Moses.

    • Major Branches: Orthodox, Conservative, Reform.

    • Core Beliefs: Monotheistic, covenant with God, Torah as sacred text, awaiting the Messiah.

    • Cultural Landscape: Synagogues, menorahs, Star of David, holidays like Passover and Yom Kippur.


3. The impact of religious activity on the cultural landscape, especially concerning religious conflicts and pilgrimages 

  • Religious Conflicts:

    • Can lead to territorial disputes, persecution, and violence (e.g., Israel-Palestine conflict, Crusades, Partition of India).

  • Pilgrimages:

    • Significant cultural and economic impacts on regions (e.g., Mecca for Muslims, Varanasi for Hindus, Jerusalem for multiple religions).

  • Architectural Influence:

    • Sacred buildings (e.g., mosques, temples, churches) often dominate skylines and influence regional architecture.

  • Cultural Practices:

    • Diet, clothing, festivals, and rituals shape local customs and interactions.

  • Sacred Spaces:

    • Creation of cemeteries, pilgrimage routes, and shrines contributes to regional identities and tourism.