Study Notes on Canada's International Affairs in the Late 19th Century

Topic Introduction: The lecture's focus is on "international affairs in the end of the nineteenth century" with a focus on Canada, summarized as "painting the map red."
- Historical Context: A phrase derived from newspaper articles and a major historical work on Canada's international relations from the last decade of the nineteenth century to the first decade of the twentieth century.

Confederation Impact: While the Confederation of 1867 unified Canada and granted it some level of self-governance, it did not grant Canada a role in international affairs until the 1930s.
- British Oversight: Canada’s foreign relations were managed by Britain, which often prioritized imperial considerations over Canadian interests.
- Consultation with Canada: Canada was occasionally consulted by Britain on international issues, particularly regarding relations with the United States and other world powers.
Reluctance for Imperial Involvement: Canadian leadership was generally hesitant to engage in imperial military expeditions.
- Example - Sudan Expedition (1884):
- Request for Support: Britain requested Canadian participation to suppress a revolt in the Sudan.
- Canadian Response: Prime Minister Sir John A. MacDonald refused the request.
  - Allowed recruitment of Canadian volunteers (voyagers) for this mission only as civilians at British expense.
- Division Among Canadians: MacDonald was aware that imperial issues could create divisions not only between English and French Canadians but across different classes and political opinions.

International Dispute (1893): Canada was involved in a significant dispute concerning fishing rights in the Pribilof Islands, located in the Bering Sea.
- Geographical Context: Pribilof Islands located midway between Canada, the U.S., and Russia, off the coast of British Columbia and Alaska.
- International Board of Arbitration:
- Canada was represented by a member appointed to an international board alongside a British member, which ensured broader imperial considerations in the decision.
- Outcome of Arbitration: The decision compromised interests of Canadians, Americans, and Russians, effectively undermining their whaling and fishing industries.
- Indigenous Peoples Benefit: Indigenous peoples were designated to conduct the fishing and sealing, receiving compensation, which potentially benefited them.

Historical Context: The Alaska boundary dispute had been an ongoing issue since the eighteenth century, culminating due to the Klondike Gold Rush.
- Gold Discovery (1898): The gold rush attracted significant attention and led to a marked increase in movement to the Yukon.
- Canadian Claims: Canada asserted that the boundary should follow a certain red line on maps, maintaining control over the heads of inlets.
- American Claims: The United States sought a boundary that followed a blue line significantly further inland.
- Ambiguity in Descriptions: Historical descriptions of the boundary were vague and led to disputes about whether it referred to mountain heights or coastal features.
- International Tribunal (1903): An international tribunal comprising Canadian and US representatives and a British judge was established to resolve the boundary.
- Compromise Result: The tribunal ruled in favor of a compromise that left the current boundary, which stirred discontent among British Columbians.
Ongoing Dispute: Some aspects of the boundary, particularly the southern tip involving the Portland Canal, remain unresolved to this day.

Current Status: The unresolved Portland Canal claims lead to continuing disagreement between Canada and the United States over maritime boundaries.
- Population: Notably, no permanent population exists in the disputed boundary area, complicating resource control claims.
- Implications on First Nations: The Canadian First Nations generally support Canada's claims, while the views of Alaskan First Nations are less clear.

Perception of Security: For many Canadians, the British connection was seen as a defense mechanism against potential annexation by the United States.
- Military Presence: Britain maintained a significant naval presence in Canada and had committed to defense support in the event of invasion.
Canadian Imperialism: A unique form of nationalism arose in Canada, namely a sense of belonging within the British Empire, which was considered important for national identity and defense.
- Imperial Federation League (1887): Formed to promote Canadian involvement in British imperial affairs, influencing national politics and promoting a sense of nationalism.
- Colonial Influences: Various organizations like the Imperial Order of the Daughters of the Empire formed to support imperial ties and adeptly engaged in fueling nationalism.

Cultural Concerns: The growing influence of American media raised fears among Canadians, who felt overshadowed culturally by the United States.
- Response to American Cultural Dominance: The British Empire was viewed as a necessary counterbalance to American cultural encroachment especially in media and literature.
Emerging Media: The presence of U.S. newspapers and magazines in Canada facilitated an exchange of cultural influences that worried some Canadians at the time, nurturing a response towards stronger ties with Britain.

Collective Identity: The late nineteenth century was marked by a complex relationship with imperialism and a developing Canadian identity that was wary of U.S. influence, but simultaneously engaged with British imperial identities. This dual consciousness shaped discussions on nationalism and international politics well into the early twentieth century.