The Protestant Reformation

Also called the Protestant Reformation, it was a religious revolution in the Western church during the 16th century.
Key Leaders: Martin Luther and John Calvin.
It had far-reaching political, economic, and social impacts, laying the foundation for Protestantism (one of Christianity's three major branches).

Background: The Late Medieval Roman Catholic Church

The church, especially the papacy (pope’s office), was deeply involved in Western European politics.
Intrigues and political maneuvering, alongside increasing power and wealth, led to the church's spiritual decline.
Abuses: Sale of indulgences and other forms of corruption undermined the church’s authority.
Despite the issues, the church still provided spiritual comfort to most people and enjoyed considerable loyalty.
Political authorities increasingly sought to limit the church's public role, causing tension.

Precedents to the 16th Century Reformation

Earlier reformers: St. Francis of Assisi, Valdes (Waldensians' founder), Jan Hus, and John Wycliffe addressed issues within the church.
Erasmus of Rotterdam: A humanist scholar who advocated for liberal Catholic reform, criticizing popular superstitions and urging the imitation of Christ.
These figures show continuous concern for renewal before Luther.

Martin Luther and the Ninety-Five Theses

October 31, 1517: Luther supposedly posted his Ninety-Five Theses on the door of the Castle Church in Wittenberg, Germany which is seen as the start of the Reformation.
Luther claimed his distinction from previous reformers was addressing the theological root of problems, specifically the doctrine of redemption and grace.
Luther was a pastor and professor at the University of Wittenberg who opposed the entanglement of God's grace with indulgences and good works.
Ninety-Five Theses: Luther attacked the indulgence system, denied the Pope's authority over purgatory, and rejected the doctrine of the merits of the saints as unfounded in the gospel.
Key tenets of Luther's reform: Sola scriptura (Scripture alone is authoritative) and sola fide (justification by faith alone).
Luther did not initially intend to break away from the Catholic Church
1521: Luther was excommunicated, leading to a split in Western Christendom.

Diversification of the Reformation

The Reformation movement in Germany quickly diversified, with other reform movements arising independently.
Huldrych Zwingli: Established a Christian theocracy: a system of government in which religious leaders rule in the name of God or a god. in Zürich, uniting church and state to serve God.
- Agreed with Luther on justification by faith but differed on the Holy Communion.
- Luther rejected transubstantiation (bread and wine becoming Christ's body and blood).
- Luther believed Christ's body was physically present in the elements because Christ is everywhere.
- Zwingli claimed Christ's presence was spiritual, and the Communion was a declaration of faith.
Radical Reformers (Anabaptists): Advocated for adult baptism (세례) after a profession of faith.
- They were persecuted but survived as Mennonites and Hutterites.
Socinians: Opposed the Trinitarian dogma and established congregations, especially in Poland.
Calvinism: Named after John Calvin, a French lawyer who fled France after converting to Protestantism.
- 1536: Calvin published the first edition of his Institutes of the Christian Religion in Basel, Switzerland. This was the first systematic, theological treatise of the new reform movement.
- Calvin agreed with Luther on justification by faith but emphasized the importance of law within the Christian community.
- Geneva: Calvin experimented with a disciplined community of the elect.
- Important doctrine of Predestination: interpreting Holy Communion as spiritually partaking of the body and blood of Christ.
- Calvin's tradition merged with Zwingli's into the Reformed tradition, expressed theologically in the Helvetic Confession of 1561.

Spread of the Reformation

The Reformation spread to other European countries during the 16th century.
Lutheranism dominated Northern Europe by mid-century.
Eastern Europe: Offered fertile ground for radical Protestantism due to weak kings, strong nobles, few cities, and existing religious pluralism.
Spain and Italy: Became centers of the Catholic Counter-Reformation, and Protestantism did not gain a strong foothold.
England: The Reformation had both political and religious roots.
- Henry VIII: He repudiated papal authority after the Pope refused to annul his marriage.
- 1534: Henry VIII established the Anglican Church with the king as the supreme head.
- The reorganization of the church permitted religious change, including the creation of a liturgy in English, the Book of Common Prayer.
Scotland: John Knox, influenced by John Calvin, led the establishment of Presbyterianism, facilitating the union of Scotland with England.

The Council of Trent was a series of meetings held from 1545 to 1563 as part of the Catholic Counter-Reformation.

It clarified church doctrine, addressed abuses, and strengthened the authority of the papacy in response to the Protestant Reformation.