The Cold War

A world divided: superpower relations, 1943–72

Reasons for the Cold War

Long-term rivalry and ideological differences

  • The Cold War developed from deep ideological differences between capitalist USA and communist USSR

  • USA: democracy, multi-party elections, individual freedom, private ownership

  • USSR: one-party state, censorship, state control of industry, no free elections

  • Mutual suspicion:

    • USA feared spread of communism would reduce trade and global influence

    • USSR feared capitalist countries would attempt to destroy communism (based on past invasions and hostility)

  • This ideological conflict made cooperation extremely difficult even before 1945

Tensions and disagreements during the Second World War

  • Alliance of USA, Britain and USSR was based only on defeating Nazi Germany

  • Key tensions:

    • Delay of Second Front (D-Day not until June 1944) angered Stalin

    • USSR suffered huge losses and believed West was deliberately delaying

    • USA kept development of the atomic bomb secret from USSR

    • Disagreements over future of Eastern Europe (free elections vs Soviet control)

The Atomic Bomb:

  • After the defeat of Germany the Western allies continued to fight against Japan

  • In August 1945 the US dropped 2 atomic bombs on Japan

  • They had kept the news of these developments secret from Stalin until after the bombs had been tested

  • He already knew about the bombs from his spies in US but was worried that once the war was done the Us would think about using these bombs on Russia

  • The Soviet Union stepped up on its own programmers of atomic research and the USSR became a nuclear power n 1949 and Britain France and China has bombs by 1964

  • The 2 sides in the Cold War entered an arms race and so once the war came to an end it was clear that the relationship between the countries were likely to become strained

  • It was also almost impossible to agree on how post war Europe should be governed

Key conferences: Tehran, Yalta, Potsdam

Tehran Conference (Nov–Dec 1943)

  • First meeting of Stalin, Roosevelt, Churchill

  • Agreements:

    • D-Day invasion confirmed

    • USSR to join war against Japan after Germany defeated

    • The US and Britain would open a second front by launching an attack on Germany in Western Europe

    • Stalin would declare war against Japan and supply soviet troops to help US to win the war against Japan - only once the Europe war was over

    • It was agreed that in general the aim of the war was to bring about the complete surrender of Germany and it should remain weak

    • It was also agreed that Poland should receive land from Germany by the Soviet Union would keep the land it had seized from Poland in 1939

    • An international body should also be set up to resolve disputes though discussion and negotiation instead of war

  • Disagreements:

    • Stalin was concerned that US and Britain were deliberately delaying a second front against Germany

    • Stalin wanted influence in Eastern Europe

    • Churchill suspicious of Soviet intentions, didn’t want the spread of communism

    • Some tension between US and Britain as Roosevelt sometimes viewed British colonialism as more of. A threat to world peace than the USSR

    • Churchill worried that Roosevelt and Stalin wanted to create the Big two and after 1945 only US and USSR would be the global superpowers

Yalta Conference (Feb 1945)

  • Germany close to defeat

  • Agreements:

    • The Soviets now clearly had control of most of Central and Eastern Europe and Stalin was determined to keep his territory

    • A United nation was to be set up, all nations could join but France and US didn’t agree to Stalin’s suggestion tat all 16 USSR republics should be given individual membership

    • Germany divided into 4 zones

    • Berlin divided into 4 zones

    • Free elections promised in Eastern Europe

    • USSR to join war against Japan

  • Disagreements:

    • In regards to Poland, Stalin wanted a communist government but Britain wanted a system similar to its own

    • Stalin wanted a buffer zone of communist states

    • West wanted democratic governments

  • Importance:

    • Temporary agreement, but major issues unresolved

Potsdam Conference (July–Aug 1945)

  • Germany defeated

  • New leaders: Truman and Attlee (Roosevelt died and Churchill lost the election)

  • Key tensions:

    • Truman more aggressive towards USSR

    • Stalin had already set up communist governments

    • USA had atomic bomb (tested July 1945)

  • Outcomes:

    • Germany divided confirmed

    • Germany divided into 4 zones (confirmed)

    • Berlin divided into 4 zones (confirmed)

    • Disagreement over reparations (USSR took from East)

    • Truman worried that too harsh reparation would make the German economy harder to recover

    • As the Soviet Union controlled the poorest zone it was allowed to take a quarter of the industrial equipment from the other zones

    • Truman also objects to arrangements for Poland and the borders that had originally been agreed on

    • Stalin wanted control of Eastern Europe to ensure the security of the USSR but Truman believed that Stalin was trying to spread communism and saw his ambitions as examples of communist aggression

    • This basic agreement turned the wartime alliance into peacetime hostility

  • Importance:

    • Breakdown of wartime alliance

The Soviet Union and Eastern Europe

  • Satellite states are nations that was once independent but now under the control of another and in the Cold War often referred to nations under political economic and military control of the Soviet Union

  • USSR created satellite states: Poland, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, East Germany

  • Used intimidation, rigged elections, removal of opposition

  • Created buffer zone for security (neutral designated areas)

  • Seen by West as expansion of communism

Attitudes of Truman and Stalin

  • Truman: anti-communist, believed USSR expanding aggressively

  • Stalin: distrustful of West, wanted security through control

Early developments in the Cold War, 1945–49

Soviet expansion in Eastern Europe

  • Communist governments established across Eastern Europe by 1948

  • Opposition removed, elections controlled

  • Communists had often led resistance again as the Nazis and so there was some genuine popularity

  • Some pro Moscow communists would also work with other parties to get into power

  • Increased tensions with USA

  • Stalin was worried of another war and his lack of atomic weapons

  • He also feared a powerful and no communist Germany

  • In the West;s perspective, Stalin was expansionist and wanted to spread communism

The Long telegram (1946)

  • The Us diplomat George Kennan sent a lengthy despatch to Washington (the Long telegram)

  • This exacerbated Us fears by saying that Stalin viewed the West as Hostile and that his foreign policy was aggressive and ideologically driven

Churchill and the Iron Curtain (1946)

  • Churchill attacked the Soviet policies in a speech in Missouri

  • He argued that an iron curtain has descended across the continent and that was the USSR desires was the indefinite expansion of their powers and doctrines

  • Churchill declared Europe divided by an “Iron Curtain”

  • Highlighted division between East and West

The Truman Doctrine (1947)

  • Introduced after Greece and Turkey threatened by communism

  • USA promised to support countries resisting communism

  • Included:

    • Economic aid

    • Military support

  • Marked beginning of containment policy

  • Increased tensions as USSR saw it as interference

The Marshall Plan (1947)

  • USA provided $13 billion to rebuild Europe

  • Aims:

    • Prevent communism

    • Rebuild economies

    • Promote trade

  • Effects:

    • Western Europe recovered quickly

    • USSR rejected and blocked Eastern Europe

  • Result:

    • Deepened division of Europe

Cominform (1947)

  • The Communist Information Bureae

  • Brought different national communist parties under Moscow control

  • This coordinated their activities to promote the USSR’s interests and challenge anti communist opposition

  • Controlled communist parties

  • Ensured loyalty to USSR

Comecon (1949)

  • The Council for Mutual Economic Assistance

  • This was Stalin’s response to the Marshall plan and the organisation increasingly brought the economic of the satellite stated under Moscow control

  • It was economically inefficient but was primarily a political tool designed to protect then from western influence

  • Economic cooperation between communist countries

  • Alternative to Marshall Plan

Disagreements over Germany including Bizonia

  • Western zones merged → Bizonia (1947)

  • Economic recovery encouraged by West

  • New currency introduced June 1948

  • USSR saw this as a threat

Berlin Crisis (1948–49)

Causes

  • Berlin inside Soviet zone but divided

  • West wanted strong Germany

  • USSR wanted weak Germany

Key events (detailed)

  • March 1948 → USSR leaves Allied Control Council

  • June 1948 → New currency introduced in West

  • 24 June 1948 → Berlin Blockade begins

  • June 1948 → Berlin Airlift begins

  • July–Sept 1948 → Continuous supply flights (food, fuel)

  • Winter 1948–49 → Airlift continues despite harsh conditions

  • April 1949 → Maximum efficiency reached

  • 12 May 1949 → Blockade ends

Results

  • USA successful in supplying West Berlin

  • USSR failed to force withdrawal

  • NATO formed (April 1949)

  • Germany divided: FRG (West) and GDR (East)

The Cold War in the 1950s

Korean War (1950–53)

  • Korea divided at 38th parallel

  • June 1950 → North invades South

  • USA intervenes under UN

  • Sept 1950 → Inchon landing successful

  • Oct 1950 → China joins war

  • 1951–53 → Stalemate

  • July 1953 → Armistice

Impact

  • Increased Cold War tensions

  • Massive military build-up

  • Reinforced containment policy

Formation of the Warsaw Pact (1955)

  • Military alliance of USSR and Eastern Europe

  • Response to NATO

Khrushchev and peaceful coexistence

  • Aimed to avoid nuclear war

  • Still ideological competition

Impact of Soviet rule on Hungary (Rakosi, de-Stalinisation, Nagy)

  • Rakosi: strict Stalinist rule, repression

  • De-Stalinisation under Khrushchev encouraged reform

  • Nagy introduced reforms:

    • Free elections

    • Leaving Warsaw Pact

Hungarian Uprising (1956)

  • Causes: dissatisfaction, reforms, weakening Soviet control

  • Events:

    • Protests begin

    • Nagy takes power

    • USSR invades in Nov 1956

  • Effects:

    • Thousands killed

    • Nagy executed

    • Hungary remains under Soviet control

  • International reaction:

    • West condemns but does not intervene

Nuclear arms race and its impact

  • USA and USSR developed nuclear weapons rapidly

  • H-bombs created (1952–53)

  • MAD doctrine (Mutually Assured Destruction)

  • Impact:

    • Increased fear

    • Prevented direct war

Three crises: Berlin, Cuba and Czechoslovakia

U2 Incident (1960)

  • US spy plane shot down over USSR

  • Paris Summit collapses

  • Increased tension

Berlin Wall (1961)

  • Cause: refugee problem (3 million fled East Germany)

  • August 1961 → Wall built overnight

  • Effects:

    • Stopped emigration

    • Divided families

    • Increased Cold War tension

Cuban Missile Crisis (1962)

Background

  • Cuba became communist (1959)

  • Bay of Pigs invasion failed (1961)

Causes

  • USSR wanted to protect Cuba

  • USA missiles in Turkey

  • Power struggle between superpowers

Key events

  • 14 Oct → Missiles discovered

  • 16 Oct → Crisis begins

  • 22 Oct → Blockade announced

  • 24 Oct → Ships approach blockade

  • 26 Oct → First Soviet offer

  • 27 Oct → U2 shot down, second demand made

  • 28 Oct → Agreement reached

Outcome

  • Missiles removed from Cuba

  • USA removes missiles from Turkey (secretly)

  • Hotline established

  • Test Ban Treaty follows

Reasons for outcome

  • Both sides feared nuclear war

  • Compromise reached

  • USA seen as stronger publicly

Czechoslovakia (1968)

  • Dubček introduces reforms (Prague Spring)

  • Greater freedom and reduced censorship

  • USSR invades (Aug 1968)

Impact including Brezhnev Doctrine

  • Brezhnev Doctrine: USSR will intervene to protect communism

  • Reinforced Soviet control over Eastern Europe

The Thaw and moves towards Détente, 1963–72

The Thaw agreements

  • Hotline (1963) → direct communication

  • Test Ban Treaty (1963) → limited nuclear testing

  • Outer Space Treaty (1967) → no weapons in space

  • Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (1968) → limit spread of nuclear weapons

Reasons for Détente

  • Fear after Cuban Missile Crisis

  • Economic cost of arms race

  • USA weakened by Vietnam War

  • USSR economic problems

SALT Talks and Treaty (1972)

  • Strategic Arms Limitation Talks

  • Limited number of nuclear weapons

  • Improved relations

Extent of Détente in 1972

  • Relations improved significantly

  • Communication better

  • Arms race slowed but continued

  • Still underlying rivalry

Timeline Summary

  • 1943 (Tehran) – Planned D-Day, early disagreements over Europe

  • Feb 1945 (Yalta) – Germany divided, tension beneath cooperation

  • July 1945 (Potsdam) – Open disagreement, start of Cold War tension

  • 1947 (Truman Doctrine) – USA begins containment of communism

  • 1947 (Marshall Plan) – Economic division of Europe

  • 1948–49 (Berlin Blockade) – First major Cold War crisis, airlift success

  • 1949 (NATO) – Western military alliance formed

  • 1950–53 (Korean War) – Cold War becomes armed conflict

  • 1955 (Warsaw Pact) – Communist military alliance formed

  • 1956 (Hungary) – USSR crushes rebellion, shows control

  • 1960 (U2 Incident) – Increased tension, failed diplomacy

  • 1961 (Berlin Wall) – Physical division of Germany

  • 1962 (Cuban Missile Crisis) – Closest to nuclear war, leads to détente

  • 1963 (Hotline/Test Ban) – Start of improved relations

  • 1968 (Czechoslovakia) – USSR reinforces control with Brezhnev Doctrine

  • 1972 (SALT) – Peak of détente, arms limited