1813-1824: Maitland as Governor

• $1813-1824$ visit of Malta’s first Governor, Maitland; nickname: "King Tom"; held absolute powers (The Governor, the Legislator and the Judge).

• Context: Conservatism prevailed over liberalism and nationalism in Europe.

• Governance note: The Governor had wide control over administration and policy.

• Advisory council: If wished, Maitland could be advised by a committee of local citizens (4 Maltese and 4 British); he did not appoint this advisory council.

1820s-1830s: Rise of Maltese political activism

• European context: Revolutions and rise of liberalism.

• Comitato Generale Maltese formed during the early British rule by Lt. Governor Sir Frederick Cavendish Ponsomby ($1827-1836$), Camillo Sceberras, and Giorgio Mitrovich; aim: more political rights for Maltese.

How the Comitato Maltese worked and 1832 Memorial

• 1830s: Whig liberal government in Britain; representation based on heads of families; Gozo sent its own representatives.

• Members represented various classes; minor involvement of Maltese lower social classes.

• 1832 Memorial: petition demanding administrative reforms; Sceberras elected President of the Comitato.

Demands of the Comitato Generale Maltese

• British authority withheld two basic rights: freedom of the press and majority representation on government councils.

• Demanded: Consiglio Popolare of about $30$ Maltese, elected by heads of families, landowners, merchants and professionals; role: legislative.

• Other aims: Public Instruction (education for all), Municipal Corps, reestablish Universita’ to administer grain trade, reduce duties on basic commodities, improve agriculture.

1835 Constitution (William IV) and its limits

• Constitution granted by King William IV; established a nominated Council of Seven to assist government.

• Council composition: head of government, his deputy, chief secretary, two Maltese nobles, and two Maltese gentlemen (one British-born merchant); Bishop of Malta and Lieutenant-Governor of Gozo were honorary members.

• Evaluation: Ethnic/minority concession; Henry Frendo argued it was not a major development and did not meet Comitato demands.

1836 Royal Commission: inquiry and findings

• Purported aims: address Maltese grievances through formal inquiry.

• Commissioners: John Austin George Cornwall Lewis; stayed on the island for about $two years$.

• Change in administration: Ponsomby’s term ended due to ill health; succeeded by Major General Sir Henry Bouverie (from $1836$).

Conclusions of the 1836 Royal Commission

• Causes of poverty: lack of work, large population, low wages.

• Recommendations: abolish press censorship tied to libel law; expand public education; official languages: Italian and English; introduce Arabic in Maltese schools.

Freedom of the press and early print culture (1839)

• Important consequence: press freedom and libel reform implemented in 1839.

• First printers: Luigi Tonna and Filippo Izzo; published Lo Spettatore Imparziale following the commission’s report and related materials in 1838.

1840s: Revolutions and Maltese liberalism

• Europe: Revolutions, Italian unification; Maltese liberalism and nationalism rise in tandem with broader European changes.

• Notable figures: Mitrovich continued advocacy for Maltese rights; traveled to London to lobby Parliament.

1847-1849: More O’Ferrall and the path to a new constitution

• Appointment: Sir Richard More O’Ferrall as Governor in 1847; reform-minded and reformist impulses grow.

• 1849 Constitution: A significant transition toward constitutional governance begins to take shape.

1849 Constitution: structure and franchise

• Governing body: Council of Government with Governor as Head of State; 9 official members (5 Maltese, 4 English) and 8 elected unofficial members; two Maltese church members were included (Catholic membership fluctuated later).

• The Governor wielded veto and retained significant control; overall, an official-majority system persisted.

• Franchise details (voting eligibility): males $21$+, literate in English or Italian, with income or property thresholds; plural voting accepted; only a small portion of the population qualified (roughly $3{,}767$ of $123{,}500$).

Maltese reaction to 1849 constitution

• Maltese liberals remained dissatisfied: governance still through a council; lack of full freedom of speech/press; authority largely in the Governor’s hands.

1860s: The Cardwell period and official majority

• 1860s: Le Merchant Governor; reliance on official majority grows.

• Cardwell Principle (1864): no money-related votes against the majority of elected members except in exceptional cases.

• 1875: Lord Carnarvon withdrew the Cardwell Principle to safeguard garrison health concerns.

1860s-1870s: Growth of Maltese political consciousness

• Continued tensions between elected members and Governor; increasingly formal demand for representative government.

Garibaldi and Italian irredentism

• 1864: Giuseppe Garibaldi visits Malta; Italian nationalist sentiment grows; Maltese supporters align with irredentist ideas.

1870s-1880s: Strategic importance and reforms under royal commissions

• International context: German and Italian unifications; Suez Canal opened; Malta’s strategic importance increases.

• 1878 Royal Commission: aim to anglicize Maltese population to secure loyal governance; influence of reformers and imperial policy.

• Result: political party emergence; tensions between reformists and anti-reformists; Governor increasingly using official majority.

1887 Constitution: Knutsford era and representative government

• 1887 Constitution established representative government: Council of Government with Legislative and Executive powers.

• Composition: $14$ elected members, $6$ official members, and $3$ elected members chosen by the Governor; all male British subjects aged $21+$ with property or rental thresholds; plural voting allowed.

• About $10{,}000$ voters from a population of ~ $200{,}000$.

• Governor retained original casting vote and veto; Crown retained full legislative power overrides via ordinances.

1887 Constitution: features and challenges

• Legislation (ordinances) required majority support of the elected members present.

• Language issues begin to intensify; political fault lines form around Reform vs Anti-Reform positions.

1898-1903: continuing tensions and language/power struggles

• The language question (Italian vs English) intensifies; Strickland and Reformists push for changes; governance remains contested between elected and official members.

1903 Constitution: return to official-majority governance

• 1903: Secretary of State Chamberlain suspends the 1887 Constitution after elected members again refused to fund education.

• New arrangement: Council of Government with $9$ official members and $8$ elected Maltese members; effectively returns to an official-majority system similar to earlier arrangements.

1903-1909: governance under the 1903 framework

• Protests and absenteeism: Members engaged in systematic abstention; within $10$ months, six general elections were held; many members were returned unopposed and then resigned.

• Characterization: Malta’s representative institutions viewed by many as a mockery; described as an oligarchy with the official-majority principle.

1911-1912: Royal Commission and emigration pressures

• Royal Commission recommended reforms and encouraged Maltese emigration as a response to economic distress.

1914-1918: World War I and political sidelining

• 1914-1918: Malta governed as a Crown Colony with limited or no power given to local politicians; Manwel Dimech challenges the status quo and is exiled.

• Dimech: Maltese patriot who politicized workers, encouraged women’s rights, and called for national freedom; exiled on 5 September 1914 to Egypt; excommunicated by the Church.

1919: Sette Giugno and immediate postwar politics

• 7 June 1919: National Assembly meeting amid economic hardship and political unrest; Union Jack was lowered and unrest spread; offices attacked; several casualties among Maltese protesters.

• Aftermath: Viscount Plumer became Governor; temporary press censorship and suppression of demonstrations; price subsidies and public works to reduce unemployment; Maltese demand for self-government gains momentum.

1921 Constitution: Amery-Milner diarchy

• 1921 Constitution introduced a diarchy (shared rule) with a bicameral legislature: Legislative Assembly and Senate; elected Maltese influence expanded.

• Reserved matters remained under Imperial control (naval, military, and air force questions).

• Franchise: Voting rights extended to more men, with literacy and property qualifications; details included in the Act.

• Senate: $17$ members (including representation from recognized bodies); Legislative Assembly: up to $32$ members; terms and majorities defined; money bills required a supermajority ($2/3$) for passage.

1930s-1939: gradual constitutional back-and-forth

• 1930 Constitution: suspended or amended in the early 1930s; 1932 restoration and 1933 withdrawal.

• 1936 Constitution: introduced nominated members to the Executive Council; shifting governance composition.

• 1939 Macdonald Constitution: Council of Government to be elected; move toward broader Maltese self-government.

1914-1919 and beyond: key patterns to remember

• Repeated cycles of: (a) expansion of Maltese political participation, (b) clashes with Governor and Imperial authorities, (c) suspensions or reforms following royal commissions or colonial policy.

• Central themes: push for self-government, press freedom, education reform, and language politics; economic hardship and emigration as responses to political stasis.

Quick-reference timeline (selected anchor dates)

• $1813-1824$: Cachia as Governor; absolute powers.

• $1827-1836$: Cavendish Ponsomby, Sceberras, Mitrovich; Comitato Maltese forms.

• $1832$: Memorial petition.

• $1835$: Constitution with nominated Council of Seven.

• $1836-1839$: Royal Commission; reforms on press, education, languages.

• $1839$: Press freedom gains footing.

• $1849$: Constitution with official majority; franchise very limited.

• $1864-1875$: Cardwell Principle established, then relaxed.

• $1887$: Knutsford Constitution; representative government begins, but with strong official influence.

• $1903$: Return to official-majority system after crisis.

• $1919-1921$: Sette Giugno; Amery-Milner Constitution.

• $1930-1939$: Oscillating reforms; Macdonald Constitution (1939) moves toward elected Council again.