Chapter 26: The Great West and the Agricultural Revolution (1865-1896)

The chapter covers the overlapping era of Reconstruction and the Gilded Age, focusing on the American West and issues affecting farmers.
Three overriding themes to explore:
- Native American policy.
- The myth vs. reality of the West.
- Economic recession and the plight of farmers, culminating in the election of 1896.

Post-Civil War Landscape:
- The frontier line was still shifting westward, running roughly north through Central Texas to the Canadian border.
- Very few white settlers inhabited the vast Great West, with notable exceptions:
- Mormons in Utah.
- Trading posts and gold camps.
- Scattered Spanish-Mexican settlements in the southwest.
- The expansive Great West measured about a thousand miles on each side, characterized by mountains, plateaus, deserts, plains, and home to Indigenous peoples, wildlife such as buffalo and wild horses, and diverse ecosystems.
Transformation by 1890:
- By 1890, the land had been transformed into two states (Utah, Arizona) and four territories (New Mexico, Indian Territory/Oklahoma).
- Pioneers were eager to claim land, leading to radical cultural shifts in a remarkably short time frame.

Population Context (1860):
- Native American population estimated at 360,000, primarily spread across the Great Plains.
- Indigenous ways of life conflicted with expanding white settlements.
Historical Conflicts:
- Migration and conflict were common; Comanches pushed Apaches away; Sioux migrated westward, transforming cultural practices.
- Encroachment by white settlers intensified existing tribal conflicts and decimated Native cultures.
- Diseases introduced by whites impacted Native populations severely.

Treaties and Reservations:
- Treaties signed with various tribes (e.g., Fort Laramie 1851, Fort Atkinson 1853) initiated the reservation system which attempted to confine Native Americans to designated areas.
- The federal government frequently mismanaged these treaties, understanding tribal governance poorly.
Corruption and Ineffectiveness:
- Federal Indian agents often used their positions for corrupt practices, supplying substandard provisions to Native Americans.

Key Incidents:
- Sand Creek Massacre (1864): Colonel James Chivington's forces killed about 400 peaceful Cheyenne Indians.
- Fetterman Massacre (1866): Attack on U.S. soldiers by Plains Indian warriors resulting in no survivors, escalating tensions further.
Custer and the Sioux Wars:
- The discovery of gold in the Black Hills led to confrontations, culminating in the Battle of the Little Bighorn (1876), where Custer's troops were overwhelmed by Sioux warriors led by Sitting Bull.
- Subsequent American military campaigns targeted Native Americans relentlessly.
Cultural and Environmental Impact:
- The relentless hunting of buffalo by settlers and the government devastated the Plains Indians' traditional lifestyle.

Homestead Act of 1862:
- The law permitted settlers to acquire 160 acres after five years of improvement, aiming to encourage family farming.
- Many settlers faced challenges due to inadequate farming conditions, resulting in high failure rates.

Technological Advancements:
- Farmers adapted techniques such as dry farming but suffered from environmental catastrophes like droughts that led to the Dust Bowl.
Structural Changes in Agriculture:
- Farmers became increasingly specialized, focusing on cash crops like wheat and corn to sell for profits.
- The mechanization of agriculture in the late 19th century drove many marginal farmers out of business, while larger agribusinesses thrived.

Debt and Economic Crisis:
- Farmers became tied to global grain prices; debts compounded as commodity prices fell.
- Mortgage foreclosures became rampant, with many farmers losing their land.