History of the British Parliament, Tudor Reforms, and Early American Colonization

The Evolution of Parliament and Economic Shifts

Primary Themes of the Course - A central theme is the diminishment of political power for those whose wealth was based on land (the nobility) and the simultaneous growth of wealth for those whose wealth is based on commerce (the merchant bourgeoisie). - This shift highlights the changing roles in Parliament between the titled nobility and the merchant class.
Early Origins of Parliament - In the beginning of the course, kings were primarily war leaders. - Kings relied upon a military aristocracy to accomplish goals. - When an English king (both prior to and after the Norman conquest) faced a problem such as an invasion, famine, or plague, they called a meeting of "bigwigs" to find a collective solution and ensure "buy in" from the kingdom.
Composition of Early Parliament - Kings would summon bishops, cardinals, the Archbishop of Canterbury, and nobles (earls and lords). - These individuals would discuss necessary actions and then execute them within their territories.
The Rise of the Merchant Bourgeoisie - By the $13^{th}$ century, a new power group emerged. - Simon de Monfort (also referred to as Simon and Monkford) identified the merchant bourgeoisie as a source of untapped resources, including money and men. - Edward the first (Edward the first) accepted these merchants into Parliament to access a new revenue stream.
Structural Division in Parliament - Parliament split into two chambers by the middle of the $14^{th}$ century: - House of Lords: Comprised of the clergy and lords whose wealth was based on land. - House of Commons: Comprised of the merchant bourgeoisie whose wealth was based on commerce. - The House of Commons did not include common day laborers, mechanics, or herders; it consisted of owners of large trading consortiums who profited from buying goods cheaply and selling them at a profit.
Parliamentary Powers and Control - Even before the split, as far back as the Magna Carta, Parliament exerted absolute control over taxation. - If a king wanted to fund a war (e.g., in France), he required Parliament's permission. - Parliament used this power to negotiate for the reissuance of the Magna Carta or to gain control over the Chancellor of the Exchequer (the individual in charge of government finance).
The Problem of Royal Succession - Succession was a major historical problem for monarchies, often leading to civil wars every $2$ to $3$ generations when an heir was unclear or a powerful noble challenged the throne. - The church attempted to manage power transitions by naming kings and princes, but was not always effective as some individuals did not follow the church's dictates. - In $1314$ , Parliament deposed Edward the second and replaced him with Edward the third, effectively solving the succession issue overnight but at the expense of the King's power.

The Military Revolution and the Rise of the Middle Class

Impact of the Longbow - The use of the longbow, beginning in the $13^{th}$ century, revolutionized warfare. - Combat shifted from "face to face" melee battles between individual knights to projectile-based warfare involving thousands of longbowmen.
Battle of Cressi ( $1337$ ) - The English army totaled approximately $10,000$ people. - $8,000$ of these soldiers were longbowmen.
The Yeomanry - Longbowmen (yeoman) were a cheap, effective fighting force paid in cash. - After returning to England, these yeomen purchased small parcels of property using their earnings. - This created a small private property market for the first time since the Anglo Saxon period. - This group became a growing "middle class"—estates wealthy enough to pay taxes and demand a say in government, but not part of the nobility or the merchant elite.

The Renaissance and Concepts of Political Authority

Nature of the Renaissance - While modern teaching emphasizes art and culture, the speaker clarifies that the Renaissance was largely an extension of the Middle Ages. - It remained brutal and the church remained in control. - Scholasticism, the primary philosophy of the Middle Ages, was essentially Aristotelianism; therefore, ancient learning never truly disappeared. - Intellectual interest in ancient literature was limited to the "tippity top" of society, such as priests, bishops, popes, and high nobility.
Changes in Warfare and Public Opinion - Hundred Years' War: After battles like Cressi or Agincourt, the international aristocracy took high-ranking prisoners for ransom (treating them as family/cousins) while executing common peasants/conscripts because they held no financial value. - Wars of the Roses: This period saw a shift. Kings began ordering the execution of rival nobles while sparing commoners, allowing them to go home or join their side.
The Mandate of Heaven vs. The People - Traditionally, the church taught that authority came from God (a Mandate of Heaven). - During events like the Peasants' Revolt, people began to claim that authority came from the people themselves. - In the Wars of the Roses, rivals for the throne began courting public opinion to be seen as the choice of the people.

The Tudor Reforms and the Birth of the National State

Significance - These are characterized as perhaps the most important package of government reforms in human history (potentially seconded only by the $10$ Commandments). - Every modern government in the world derives its concept of authority from these reforms.
Henry VII (Henry Tudor) and the Battle of Bosworth Field - In $1483$ , Richard the third became king after murdering his nephew, Edward the fifth, and the nephew's brothers. - Henry Tudor returned from exile in France with an army. - In $1485$ , Henry defeated Richard at the Battle of Bosworth Field. - Henry combined the House of Lancaster and the House of York, creating one "super noble family" and ending the medieval balance of power.
Military Consolidation - Henry identified that reliance on private military retinues of nobles was a weakness. - He disbanded "affinities" (private noble armies) and replaced them with a national militia run by royal appointees. - This forced nobles to go through the royal government for positions, consolidating all military power under the King. - Henry the seventh and Henry the eighth became the most absolute rulers in English history.

Demographic Shifts, Urbanization, and Economic Challenges

Economic Transition - England transitioned from an agricultural economy (wealth from land) to a trade-based economy (wealth from commerce), leading to conflict between nobility and merchants.
Loss of Empire and Rise of Nationalism - England lost its continental holdings in Italy, Spain, France, Portugal, North Africa, and the Middle East. - This sparked a rise in nationalism as England became a culturally homogenous state (no French people under the crown).
Venetian Influence - The English admired the Republic of Venice for its consistency and lack of rebellion over $1,000$ years. - Venice was a republic led by a senate, which avoided the policy swings associated with changing monarchs. - English government borrowed several Venetian innovations: - Advanced banking systems. - Double column accounting books (listing debits and credits). - Stock companies (buying/selling shares). - Ship insurance.
Urbanization - By $1600$ , approximately $20\%$ of the population lived in cities. - By $1700$ , one-sixth ( $1/6$ ) of the British population lived in London alone.
Labor Surplus and Unemployment - Introduction of windmills, heavier plows, and fertilizers ended the historical labor shortage. - From roughly $1500$ to $1690$ , England faced a chronic labor surplus with unemployment rates around $20\%$ . - This led to a lawless $16^{th}$ century with high rates of petty crime. - A segment of the population (about one-eighth) became "drifting gig workers," mostly young men aged $15$ to $25$ .

The Protestant Reformation and the English Church

Martin Luther - In $1517$ , Luther posted his $95$ theses on the Wurttemberg Cathedral. - He intended to be a reformer, not to overturn the Catholic church, but he opened the door for kingdoms to leave.
The Great Matter of Henry VIII - In $1509$ , Henry VIII married Catherine of Aragon to secure an alliance with Spain. - By age $50$ , Catherine had not provided a male heir. - Henry sought an annulment from the Pope to prevent future civil wars; the Pope refused due to being under the control of the Spanish King.
Parliamentary Investigation of $1529$ - Henry asked Parliament to investigate church abuses. - The report found no systemic corruption but noted several issues: - Broke priests: Some took second jobs as farmers, tavern keepers, or pimps. - Concubinism: Priests living with mistresses. - Pluracy (Pleurisy): Bishops holding multiple benefices to collect tithing without providing services like mass, last rites, or communion. - Lack of direction: Illiterate priests and lack of supervision from bishops.
The Act of Supremacy ( $1534$ ) - Henry had Parliament pass this act making him the head of the church in England. - Although a devout Catholic, he wanted the church's structure to remain while he replaced the Pope as the head. - Henry used Parliament to do this so he could argue that the English people made the decision, ensuring popular consent and preventing a people's rebellion.
Monopoly of Power - For the first time since the fall of the Western Roman Empire, a government held a monopoly on both political and social/religious aspects of the state.

The Social Welfare State and Educational Changes

Thomas Cromwell and Social Welfare - The Tudor reforms created the first "social welfare state" focused on the well-being of citizens.
Poor Laws - Widows and Orphans: Specifically named for care, housing, and food based on biblical mandates. - Men: Excluded from aid; idle or vagrant men were punished with stocks, whipping, or (beginning in the $1630$ s) indenture to the colonies.
Workhouses and Housing - Workhouses were created for children who committed petty crimes (theft, vandalism) to learn trades like shoemaking. - The government established public housing for the "working poor" who had jobs but could not afford rent.
Education - The government took over church educational infrastructure to create a primary school system (reading, writing, and math to an $8^{th}$ grade level). - Women were specifically excluded from this new system, despite the Catholic church's previous tradition of educating them.
Dissolution of the Monasteries - Henry confiscated approximately $30\%$ of all land in England from the church. - He broke the land into small chunks and sold it to the growing middle class (yeomen). - This increased land ownership from $0.5\%$ to $2\%$ of the population. - This created a class of staunch Protestants who favored property rights and opposed the return of the Catholic church, fearing they would lose their land.
Puritans - The most extreme of these anti-Catholic property owners became known as Puritans.

The Development of the Royal Navy and the Transition of the Monarchy

The Marine Affairs Office ( $1546$ ) - Henry created a permanent, professional navy with dedicated logistics, moving away from relying on merchant ships. - England maintained the best navy in the world until the late $19^{th}$ century.
Successors to Henry VIII - Edward the sixth: A weak ruler who died after $6$ years. - Mary I (Bloody Mary): A Catholic married to the King of Spain. She burned $300$ Protestants (mostly teenagers).
The Book of Martyrs - John Fox wrote "John Fox's Book of Martyrs," which detailed the deaths of these teenagers. - It became the most popular book in England for $300$ years and cemented Mary's reputation as a "butcher." - Mary died in $1558$ after a $5$ year reign.

The Reign of Elizabeth I and Global Piracy

Elizabeth I - Reigned for $45$ years; seen as the most successful English monarch. - Idolized Alfred the Great and his daughter, Applefleet (Aethelflaed). - Spoke $6$ languages.
State-Sponsored Piracy - Elizabeth used the navy to sink Spanish treasure fleets. - She publicly denied involvement to King Philip of Spain while privately rewarding captains like Sir Francis Drake. - She used stolen Mexican gold to fund Dutch rebels fighting the Spanish in Europe.
Spanish Armada ( $1588$ ) - Spain launched a major invasion. - England defeated the Armada using fire ships. - English ships sat low in the waterline, while Spanish ships sat high; Spanish cannons could not tilt low enough to hit the English vessels.

Colonial Expansion in Virginia

Roanoke - Founded in $1585$ ; first attempt failed. The colony disappeared; it is theorized they lived with local Native American groups (stories of "blonde Algonquins").
Jamestown ( $1607$ ) - First successful colony, founded by the Virginia Company and named after James the first. - Initially run by a Governor's Council of nobles and landowners.
House of Burgesses ( $1619$ ) - Established as the colony grew, replicating the English Parliamentary system (House of Lords/Commons equivalent).
Royal Colony ( $1623$ ) - The Virginia Company went bankrupt; management passed to royal authority.

The Constitutional Revolution and Judicial Review

Edward Cook (Coke) and Judicial Review - In $1610$ , Chief Justice Edward Cook (spelled Coke) ruled in "Doctor Bonham's Case." - He established that because English law is based on precedent (Common Law), laws passed by Parliament that conflict with standing laws can be voided by the judiciary. - He stated: "In many cases, the common law will control acts of parliament." - He further ruled that the King was not exempt; if the King violated the law, the judiciary could void the action. - This created an independent judiciary and the three-branch system of government (checks and balances).
Courts in Virginia - In $1634$ , Virginia established "Shires" (county governments) with their own courts to manage trade disputes. - The oldest county is James County.

The Settlement of Plymouth and the Mayflower Compact

Origins of Plymouth ( $1620$ ) - Puritans initially went to the Netherlands, then returned to England. - Intended to settle in Hudson Bay/New Amsterdam but missed and landed in Massachusetts. - They were technically "squatters" without a formal charter.
The Mayflower Compact - Signed on November $11$ , $1620$ . - John Adams called it America's first constitution. - Key excerpt: "covenant and combine ourselves into a civil body politic… do erect, constitute, and frame such just and equal law… unto which we promise all due submission and obedience." - The Compact emphasized "just and equal laws" without a social hierarchy.
Demographics - Only $37$ out of the $102$ passengers were Puritans. - These $102$ people were the only ones initially, but population grew by $20,000$ in the $1630$ s.

Governance in the Massachusetts Colonies

Direct Democracy - Plymouth used an Assembly of Freemen (based on the Greek Athenian Ecclesia). - The Governor was elected directly by all freemen, regardless of church membership. - Unlike Virginia, the Governor was present on the ground in the colony.
Legal Codes - Plymouth Legal Code ( $1636$ ): First legal code in British North America. It outlined political offices, terms, and a Bill of Rights (trial by jury, due process). - Massachusetts Body of Liberties ( $1641$ ): Declared that everyone, including Native Americans, was equal before the law.
The "Open Market of Ideas" - During the $17^{th}$ and early $18^{th}$ centuries, North American colonies were largely autonomous because the English government was preoccupied with Parliament. - Communication was limited by the Atlantic crossing (which was impossible for $4$ months a year during winter). - This allowed diverse groups to develop their own ideologies, laws, and institutions.

Questions & Discussion

Question: "Does that say control of?" - Response: The speaker clarifies the bullet point in the notes refers to "control of taxation and royal succession and privilege."
Question: "So Spain wasn't in control of Italy at this time?" - Response: Spain controlled parts of Italy but never Venice. Venice was highly defensible due to its location on islands surrounded by shallow reefs.
Question: "Did she [Mary] kill a bunch of people?" - Response: Yes, but the speaker notes that all monarchs (Henry VIII, Elizabeth) killed people. Mary's reputation suffered because she burned $300$ Protestants (Book of Martyrs) and failed to control the press/narrative.
Question: "When you say free men, you mean free equipment, like the women can go and vote?" - Response: The speaker clarifies that "freemen" refers to the male population and that they had not reached the point of women's suffrage in the historical timeline being discussed.

A central theme is the diminishment of political power for those whose wealth was based on land (the nobility) and the simultaneous growth of wealth for those whose wealth is based on commerce (the merchant bourgeoisie).
This shift highlights the changing roles in Parliament between the titled nobility and the merchant class.

Early Origins of Parliament

In the beginning of the course, kings were primarily war leaders, relying upon a military aristocracy to achieve goals.
When an English king faced a problem such as invasion, famine, or plague, they called a meeting of "bigwigs" to find a collective solution and ensure "buy in" from the kingdom.

Composition of Early Parliament

Kings summoned bishops, cardinals, the Archbishop of Canterbury, and nobles (earls and lords) to discuss necessary actions and then execute them within their territories.

The Rise of the Merchant Bourgeoisie

By the 13th century, a new power group emerged.
Simon de Monfort identified the merchant bourgeoisie as a source of untapped resources, including money and manpower.
Edward I accepted these merchants into Parliament to access a new revenue stream.

Structural Division in Parliament

By the middle of the 14th century, Parliament split into two chambers:
- House of Lords: Comprised of the clergy and lords whose wealth was based on land.
- House of Commons: Comprised of the merchant bourgeoisie whose wealth was based on commerce, specifically owners of large trading consortiums who profited from buying goods cheaply and selling them at a profit.

Parliamentary Powers and Control

Even before the split, Parliament exerted absolute control over taxation, as far back as the Magna Carta.
If a king wanted to fund a war (e.g., in France), he required Parliament's permission, using this power to negotiate for the reissuance of the Magna Carta or to gain control over the Chancellor of the Exchequer.

The Problem of Royal Succession

Succession was a major historical problem for monarchies, often leading to civil wars every 2 to 3 generations when an heir was unclear or a powerful noble challenged the throne.
The church attempted to manage power transitions by naming kings and princes but was not always effective.
In 1314, Parliament deposed Edward II and replaced him with Edward III, effectively solving the succession issue overnight but at the expense of the King's power.

The Military Revolution and the Rise of the Middle Class

Impact of the Longbow

The longbow revolutionized warfare beginning in the 13th century, shifting combat from melee battles between individual knights to projectile-based warfare with thousands of longbowmen.

Battle of Cressi (1337)

The English army totaled approximately 10,000 soldiers, with 8,000 being longbowmen.

The Yeomanry

Longbowmen (yeoman) represented a cheap, effective fighting force, paid in cash and returning to England to purchase small parcels of property, creating a small private property market for the first time since the Anglo-Saxon period.
This group became a growing middle class—wealthy enough to pay taxes and demand a say in government, but not part of the nobility or the merchant elite.

The Renaissance and Concepts of Political Authority

Nature of the Renaissance

The Renaissance, while often viewed as an artistic and cultural revival, was largely an extension of the Middle Ages and remained brutal, with the church in control.
Scholasticism, the primary philosophy of the Middle Ages, was essentially Aristotelianism, meaning ancient learning never truly disappeared.
Intellectual interest in ancient literature was limited to the upper echelons of society, such as priests, bishops, popes, and high nobility.

Changes in Warfare and Public Opinion

Hundred Years' War: Aristocrats took high-ranking prisoners for ransom while executing common peasants who held no financial value.
Wars of the Roses: Kings began ordering the execution of rival nobles while sparing commoners, allowing them to go home or join their side.

The Mandate of Heaven vs. The People

Traditionally, authority derived from the church's teaching that it came from God (the Mandate of Heaven). However, events like the Peasants' Revolt saw people arguing that authority came from the populace.
During the Wars of the Roses, rival claimants to the throne began courting public opinion to be seen as the people's choice.

The Tudor Reforms and the Birth of the National State

Significance

The Tudor reforms are characterized as one of the most significant packages of government reforms in human history, second only to the Ten Commandments.
Modern governments derive their concepts of authority from these reforms.

Henry VII (Henry Tudor) and the Battle of Bosworth Field

Richard III became king after murdering his nephew in 1483.
Henry Tudor returned from exile in France and defeated Richard at the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485, combining the House of Lancaster and the House of York.

Military Consolidation

Henry recognized that reliance on private military retinues of nobles was a weakness. He disbanded "affinities" (private noble armies) and replaced them with a national militia run by royal appointees, consolidating military power under the King.