Zikalashaw and US Indian Policies in the Nineteenth Century

Overview of the Nineteenth Century U.S. Indian Policies

This section discusses Zikalashaw's autobiographical account and the United States Indian policy throughout the nineteenth century. The discussion is divided into four primary eras: treaty-making, removal, reservation, and assimilation and allotment eras.

Treaty Making Era

  • Description: The longest era of U.S. Indian policy, beginning with treaties established between the United States and Indian nations.

  • First Treaty: The Treaty of Fort Pitt, signed in 1778.

  • Total Ratified Treaties: 374 treaties were ratified between various Indian nations and the United States.

  • Key Author: Francis Prucha, in his book "American Indian Treaties, the History of a Political Anomaly," described Indian treaties as anomalous because they are often made between sovereign nations, yet those nations are within the boundaries of the United States.

  • Obligations of the U.S.: According to these treaties, the U.S. government has the obligation to protect and fund reservations and Native communities.

Removal Era

  • Time Period: Typically identified as 1820 to 1850, though it can be argued that the policies began earlier with Thomas Jefferson's administration and the Louisiana Purchase.

  • Jefferson's Policies: Aimed to move Native Americans from the East to the West of the Mississippi.

  • Debt Strategy: One tactic used was to place Native communities in debt, leading them to give up their land as a means of repayment.

  • Andrew Jackson's Role: He is notably recognized for implementing Indian removal policies despite the U.S. Supreme Court's ruling that Georgia could not enforce its laws on tribal lands.

  • Indian Removal Act of 1830: This act commenced the forced removal of Native Americans from their homelands in the East to designated Indian Territory (present-day Oklahoma). Estimates suggest that between 70,000 and 100,000 people were forcibly removed.

  • Trail of Tears: Refers to the traumatic journey of many Native nations during this forced removal, resulting in significant suffering and death.

Reservation Era

  • Time Period: About 1865 to 1890, initiated under President Ulysses S. Grant.

  • Description: Natives were relocated to reservations, some near their original homelands and others far away.

  • Government Control: Reservations were controlled by the government, restricting the Native peoples’ rights to sell or utilize the land.

  • Current Status: There are approximately 325 reservations across the U.S. and 574 federally recognized tribes, but not all tribes have their own reservations. The size of these reservations has decreased over time due to government policies.

Assimilation and Allotment Era

  • Time Period: 1890 to about 1920.

  • Ghost Dances: Various Native groups engaged in these dances to connect with ancestral spirits, which were often misrepresented by the U.S. government as 'war dances' leading to suppression of these practices.

  • Wounded Knee Massacre: A significant event where U.S. military forces killed between 200 to 300 Lakota villagers at Wounded Knee as they suppressed the ghost dance movement.

  • Dawes Act (General Allotment Act of 1887): This act ended the period of giving Native groups land, instead breaking up reservations into smaller parcels to individual Indians who had to prove they were “civilized.” Excess land was sold or given to white settlers, resulting in significant loss of Native land (nearly 100 million acres).

  • Indian Boarding Schools: Established to assimilate Native children into Euro-American culture. The first such school was the Carlisle Indian School (1879-1918), designed to strip away Native identities and enforce discipline and conformity.

Themes of Cultural Erasure and Resistance

  • “Kill the Indian, Save the Man”: A phrase associated with the purpose of these boarding schools aiming to civilize Native children by erasing their indigenous identities.

  • Blood Quantum System: Established to determine tribal membership based on ancestry and often used to exclude individuals from tribal enrollment, further diminishing Tribal sovereignty and population.

  • Zikalashaw’s Experience and Writings: Reflects resistance to these policies and the impact on her identity as both a student and later as a teacher. Some notable works include "School Days of an Indian Girl" and "Impressions of an Indian Childhood."

  • Cultural Nuance: Zikalashaw recognized the ignorance of some teachers at boarding schools, who, despite their well-meaning attitudes, caused harm to Native identity and culture.

  • Moments of Resistance: Throughout her narrative, Zikalashaw often refers to acts of rebellion, such as when she rebels against the expectations placed upon her, scraping out the eyes of a painted devil to symbolize her resistance against colonial oppression.

Final Thoughts and Discussion Points

  • Cultural Duality: The struggle of Native peoples to maintain their identity while navigating between two cultures is a recurring theme, highlighting the pressures of assimilation on individuals and communities.

  • Representation in Education: Zikalashaw’s narrative serves as an expose on the educational institutions’ role in perpetuating cultural genocide while simultaneously demonstrating resilience and the effort to reclaim Native narratives.

  • Significance of Autobiographies: Personal accounts like Zikalashaw's provide invaluable insights into the lived experiences of Native Americans during a time of intense cultural and political upheaval, underscoring the importance of preserving these narratives for future understanding.