📚 UNIT 0: Scientific Foundations of Psychology
1. 🧠 Introduction to Psychology
Psychology = Scientific study of behavior and mental processes.
Psychologists rely on the scientific method, not intuition or common sense.
Example: "Opposites attract" vs. "Birds of a feather flock together" → Contradictory intuitions.
2. 📖 Science Practices Focus Areas
Skill | % of MCQs | Description | Example |
|---|---|---|---|
Concept Application | ~65% | Apply terms/theories to real-world examples. | Recognizing "classical conditioning." |
Research Methods and Design | ~25% | Understand experiments, sampling, biases. | Identifying independent variable in a sleep study. |
Data Interpretation | ~10% | Analyze graphs, charts, statistics. | Reading scatterplots about study hours vs GPA. |
Argumentation | (FRQs only) | Build evidence-based arguments. | Using research studies to support claims. |
3. 🧪 Scientific Method in Psychology
Step | Description |
|---|---|
Form Hypothesis | Testable and falsifiable prediction. |
Operationalize Variables | Define exactly how IV and DV are measured. |
Conduct Study | Carry out the experiment or observation. |
Analyze Data | Use statistics. |
Draw Conclusions | Based on evidence. |
Replicate | Repeat study to test reliability. |
4. ❗ Important Biases and Research Errors
Bias | Description | Example |
|---|---|---|
Hindsight Bias | "I knew it all along." | After learning a study’s result. |
Confirmation Bias | Focus on evidence that supports beliefs. | Ignoring contradictory data. |
Overconfidence | Thinking we know more than we do. | Predicting 100% on a test but failing. |
Experimenter Bias | Researcher unintentionally affects results. | Smiling more at one group. |
Demand Characteristics | Participants change behavior to fit guesses about the study. | Acting "extra obedient" if they think obedience is being studied. |
Social Desirability Bias | Giving socially acceptable answers. | Lying on a survey about drug use. |
5. 👓 Psychological Perspectives (Fully Detailed)
Perspective | Description | Example |
|---|---|---|
Humanistic | Free will, self-actualization (Maslow, Rogers). | Preferring deep friendships over large groups. |
Psychodynamic | Unconscious drives, childhood experiences (Freud). | Avoiding parties due to past trauma. |
Biopsychology (Neuroscience) | Brain chemistry, neurotransmitters. | Extroversion from dopamine levels. |
Evolutionary | Traits for survival (Darwin). | Extroversion helps form alliances. |
Behavioral | Conditioning through rewards/punishments (Watson, Skinner). | Being praised for social behavior. |
Cognitive | How we encode, process, retrieve info (Piaget). | Thinking parties are positive experiences. |
Sociocultural | Society/culture influence behavior. | Extroversion encouraged in collectivist cultures. |
Biopsychosocial | Integrative model: biological + cognitive + social. | Genetics, thoughts, and culture all impact extroversion. |
🔔 Note: Most psychologists today use an eclectic approach.
6. 📊 Types of Research
Type | Description | Example |
|---|---|---|
Applied Research | Solve real-world problems. | Finding best reading programs. |
Basic Research | Expand general knowledge. | Studying how memory works. |
Quantitative Research | Numerical data and statistics. | Survey on study habits. |
Qualitative Research | Open-ended descriptions, interviews. | Interviewing patients about therapy experiences. |
🔑 Types of Interviews:
Structured: Fixed questions.
Semistructured/Unstructured: Flexible, open discussions.
7. 🧪 Hypotheses and Variables
Concept | Description | Example |
|---|---|---|
Hypothesis | Testable, falsifiable prediction. | "Sleep improves memory." |
Independent Variable (IV) | Manipulated factor. | Amount of sleep. |
Dependent Variable (DV) | Measured outcome. | Memory test scores. |
Operational Definitions | Specific descriptions of IV and DV. | "Hours of sleep" = 0, 4, or 8 hours. |
8. 🎯 Validity and Reliability
Concept | Description |
|---|---|
Validity | Study measures what it intends to measure. |
Reliability | Results are consistent across repetitions. |
9. 🧍 Sampling Techniques
Concept | Description |
|---|---|
Population | Group researchers want to study. |
Sample | Subset of the population. |
Random Sampling | Every member has equal chance. (Best for generalization.) |
Convenience Sampling | Easy but biased. |
Stratified Sampling | Proportional representation of demographics. |
🔑 Important Distinction:
Random Sampling = choosing participants.
Random Assignment = putting participants into experimental/control groups.
10. 🧪 Experimental Method
Concept | Description |
|---|---|
Laboratory Experiment | Conducted in controlled environment. |
Field Experiment | Conducted in natural setting. |
Random Assignment | Participants randomly assigned to groups. |
Experimental Group | Receives IV. |
Control Group | Does not receive IV. |
🔑 Important Procedures:
Placebo Method: Fake treatment to test expectations.
Double-Blind Study: Both participants and experimenters unaware of group assignments.
Hawthorne Effect: Participants change behavior because they know they're being observed.
Counterbalancing: Controls for order effects in repeated measures design.
11. 🔗 Correlational Method
Shows relationship between two variables.
Positive Correlation: Variables move in same direction.
Negative Correlation: Variables move in opposite directions.
Directionality Problem: Which variable causes which?
Third-Variable Problem: Another factor may explain results.
📈 Scatterplots:
Positive slope = positive correlation.
Negative slope = negative correlation.
Line of best fit minimizes distance from points.
12. 👀 Observational Methods
Method | Description |
|---|---|
Naturalistic Observation | Observe without interference. |
Case Study | In-depth study of one individual/group (cannot generalize). |
Survey Method | Questionnaires, interviews; risk of bias. |
🔑 Likert Scales: Strongly agree → Strongly disagree.
13. 📈 Statistics
Type | Description |
|---|---|
Descriptive Statistics | Summarize data. |
Inferential Statistics | Generalize from sample to population. |
🔢 Descriptive Statistics:
Mean = average
Median = middle score
Mode = most common
Range = difference between highest and lowest
Variance and Standard Deviation = spread of data
📈 Normal Curve (Bell Curve):
68% within 1 SD
95% within 2 SD
99% within 3 SD
🔢 Z-Score: How many standard deviations from mean.
🔢 Inferential Statistics:
P-value: Probability results are due to chance.
p < 0.05 = statistically significant.
Effect Size: Measures magnitude of result.
🔢 Meta-Analysis: Combines results of many studies.
Helps address the Replication Crisis in psychology.
14. 📜 APA Ethical Guidelines
Research Type | Ethical Standards |
|---|---|
Animal Research | Clear purpose, humane treatment, legal acquisition, minimize suffering. |
Human Research | |
No Coercion | Participation must be voluntary. |
Informed Consent | Participants must agree knowingly. |
Confidentiality/Anonymity | Identities protected. |
Risk Protection | No significant mental/physical harm. |
Debriefing | Full explanation after study ends. |
🔑 Additional Ethical Notes:
Assent: Minors must assent + guardians must consent.
Institutional Review Board (IRB): Must approve research before it starts.
Peer Review: Experts must review research before publication.