The Civil Rights Movement: Legislative Milestones and the 1965 Selma March

Evaluation of the 1963 March on Washington Program

• The program for the 1963 March on Washington reflects a broad coalition of civil rights organizations and leaders.
• Key Program Participants and Sequence:
  • The event began with the National Anthem led by Marian Anderson.
  • The invocation was delivered by the Archbishop of Washington.
  • Opening remarks were given by the director of the march, A. Philip Randolph.
  • Featured women included Daisy Bates, who was instrumental in the desegregation of schools.
  • Mrs. Medgar Evers spoke; her husband, Medgar Evers, was the first Black person to integrate and attend the State University of Mississippi.
  • Rosa Parks was a recognized attendee and participant.
  • John Lewis, chair of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC), represented college students.
  • Other notable leaders represented include officials from the AFL-CIO, the United Auto Workers, the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE), the National Urban League, and the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP).
  • Religious representation included a rabbi as the president of the Synagogue Council of America and the Catholic Conference for Interracial Justice.
  • Reverend Martin Luther King Jr. was the 16th speaker on the program, delivering his "I Have a Dream" speech.
• Conclusion: The primary takeaway from the program is that leaders from several different civil rights organizations were present, highlighting a common goal reached through a multi-faceted coalition. It was not a solo effort by a single leader or organization.

Political Shifts and the Impact of the March on Washington

• President John F. Kennedy's Reaction:
  • Prior to the march, President Kennedy maintained a "hands-off" approach to the legislature, generally reading and signing bills sent to his desk without active influence.
  • Seeing $250,000$ peaceful protesters gather—an event broadcast on national television—moved Kennedy to change his style.
  • He began active communication with members of Congress to advocate for civil rights legislation.
• Timeline of the Presidency:
  • The March on Washington occurred in August $1963$.
  • President John F. Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas in November $1963$.
  • Consequently, Kennedy did not live to see the final results of the pressure campaign he initiated for civil rights.
• Transitional Leadership:
  • Lyndon Baines Johnson (LBJ) became the next president.
  • LBJ was a "New Deal Democrat" who had served in the House of Representatives since the $1930s$.
  • He utilized a different pressure strategy: he urged Congress to pass civil rights legislation in the name and honor of the "fallen president" (Kennedy), appealing to nationalism and patriotism.

The Role of Media and Television in the 1960s

• During the $1960s$, there was no cable television or streaming internet. Most markets only had access to three stations picked up via antenna.
• Programming Schedule:
  • Daytime: Targeted toward the "American ideal" of a stay-at-home woman.
  • After-school: Children's programming.
  • Early evening ($6:00\,PM$): Local and national news coverage.
  • Late evening ($8:00\,PM$): Game shows and weekly series.
• Media Strategy: Civil rights leaders recognized that nearly everyone with a TV was watching the same news at $6:00\,PM$. This made it critical to maintain discipline and control the narrative, ensuring the movement was presented as peaceful rather than violent.

The Civil Rights Act of 1964

• Legislative Goal: To end discrimination based on race, color, sex, religion, and national origin.
• Public Accommodations: Outlawed segregation in any space accessible to the public, including:
  • Restaurants
  • Hotels/Motels
  • Shopping malls
  • Grocery stores
• Legal Challenges:
  • A motel owner in Atlanta, Georgia, sued the government, arguing the federal government had no power to regulate his local business because it did not move across state lines (interstate trade).
  • The Supreme Court ruled against him, citing that a hotel relies on out-of-state customers and uses interstate highways, thus falling under federal jurisdiction.
• Resistance and Exceptions:
  • Private clubs often used "membership" to maintain segregation. For example, the Masters golf tournament in Augusta, Georgia, did not allow Black players until the $1980s$.
• Economic and Workplace Equality:
  • The act established the concept of the Equal Opportunity Employer (EOE).
  • By including "sex" in the bill, it provided a significant victory for women's rights activists, eventually breaking barriers such as banks refusing to issue credit cards or loans to women.

The 24th Amendment (1964)

• This constitutional amendment outlawed the practice of poll taxes in federal elections.
• Limitations: The amendment did not solve all voting barriers. It did not address literacy tests or grandfather clauses, which remained in use at the time to disenfranchise Black voters.

The Selma to Montgomery March (1965)

• The Objective: To organize a $50$-mile march from Selma, Alabama, to the capital in Montgomery to demand voting rights.
• Local Context: Selma was chosen because it was a police state dominated by white supremacists. The local sheriff, Jim Clark, was known for his brutal suppression of civil rights demonstrations.
• Bloody Sunday (March 7, 1965):
  • Approximately $600$ protesters gathered to cross the bridge out of Selma.
  • On the other side of the bridge, they were met by state and local police who beat the non-violent crowd with billy clubs and rode horses through the group.
  • Amelia Boynton, a grassroots leader since $1932$, was beaten unconscious; many observers initially believed she was dead.
• Media Impact: CBS interrupted the movie Judgment at Nuremberg on Sunday night to show footage of the police brutality. This broadcast served as a catalyst, waking up parts of America that had ignored the movement.
• Political Escalation:
  • John Lewis criticized President Johnson, questioning how he could send troops to Vietnam and the Congo but not to Selma to protect American citizens.
  • Following a federal court order, LBJ nationalized the Alabama National Guard and deployed FBI agents to protect protesters during a subsequent attempt.
  • By the time they reached Montgomery, the crowd had grown to $30,000$ people.

The Voting Rights Act of 1965 and Political Realignment

• Legislative Provisions: Outlawed literacy tests, grandfather clauses, and other discriminatory obstacles to voting.
• Political Consequences:
  • The Democratic Party, which had been the "Solid South" opposed to civil rights since the end of Reconstruction, suffered a major rift.
  • LBJ (a Democrat from Texas) signing these laws was seen as a betrayal by white Southern Democrats.
  • In $1968$, Governor George Wallace of Alabama ran for president on the platform: "Segregation today, segregation tomorrow, segregation forever."
  • This shift eventually led Southern voters toward the Republican Party starting in the $1970s$ under President Richard Nixon.
• Recent Supreme Court Rulings:
  • In recent years, parts of the Voting Rights Act have been rolled back.
  • The court struck down provisions requiring states with a history of discrimination to get federal clearance before changing voting laws.
  • Recent rulings have also limited the use of race as a basis for preventatively redrawing election districts to ensure minority representation (gerrymandering).

Questions & Discussion

• Student Question: "Did the 24th Amendment solve the problem of African Americans being denied the right to vote?"
• Instructor Response: No, it only eliminated the poll tax. Literacy tests and grandfather clauses were still operational barriers until the Voting Rights Act of 1965.
• Keyclub Discussion: The instructor briefly checked the attendance and activity logs for Keyclub, mentioning events like the sidewalk chalk activity, the haunted house, blood drives, and babysitting. It was noted that only about $10$ people out of a larger group had logged in for the most recent meetings.