CHAPTER 9

Psychology and Our Curious World

Chapter 9: Learning

Authors

• Gary W. Goodfriend

• Thomas Heinzen

• Charity Brown

• John B. Lewandowski Jr.

Chapter Outline

• 9.1 What is classical conditioning?

• 9.2 What is operant conditioning?

• 9.3 What are cognitive and observational learning?

What is Learning?

• Learning is a relatively long-term change in behavior or physiological response, due to previous experiences.

  • Key Aspects:

  • Learning can begin before we are born.

  • Learning occurs every day and is a vital part of life.

• Types of Learning:

  • Classical Conditioning

  • Operant Conditioning

  • Observational Learning

Classical Conditioning: What is it?

• Definition: Classical conditioning is the process in which a natural, physiological response to one stimulus is transferred to another because the two stimuli are associated.

• Stimulus: Any agent, event, or situation—whether internal or external—that elicits a response from an organism.

Classical Conditioning: Pavlov’s Research

• Research Overview: Pavlov researched the salivation reflex in dogs in response to stimuli that hinted at food.

  • Initially, dogs salivated at the sight or sound of the lab assistant who would feed them.

  • Pavlov conditioned the dogs to salivate upon hearing various sounds or seeing flashing lights.

Classical Conditioning: BEFORE Learning Occurs

• UNCONDITIONED STIMULUS (UCS): An object, sound, smell, etc., in the environment that triggers an automatic, instinctive reaction.

• UNCONDITIONED RESPONSE (UCR): The automatic, instinctive reaction caused by an unconditioned stimulus.

• NEUTRAL STIMULUS (NS): An object, sound, smell, etc., in the environment that doesn’t elicit any particular reaction on its own.

Classical Conditioning: AFTER Learning Occurs

• CONDITIONED STIMULUS (CS): An object, sound, smell, etc., in the environment that causes an unnatural reaction only after learning has happened.

  • Example: After multiple pairings of sound and food, dogs began to salivate from the sound alone.

• CONDITIONED RESPONSE (CR): The reaction caused by a conditioned stimulus, which occurs only after learning has taken place.

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING: EXAMPLES

STAGE 1 (Before Conditioning)

• Food (UCS) → Salivation (UCR)

• Metronome (NS) → No salivation

STAGE 2 (During Conditioning)

• Metronome (NS) + Food (UCS) → Salivation (UCR)

STAGE 3 (After Conditioning)

• Metronome (CS) → Salivation (CR)

  • After the metronome is paired with food repeatedly, it becomes a CS that leads to a CR of salivation even without food present.

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING: MORE EXAMPLES

• Situation:

  • Unconditioned Stimulus:

  • A cat runs to the food bowl when it hears the can opener. (Cat food)

  • A person's heartbeat increases when they hear a certain song because it played during their first kiss. (A kiss)

  • A child feels fear in the dentist’s waiting room due to fear of pain. (Pain of dental work)

• Unconditioned Response: The automatic responses triggered by UCS in various contexts.

• Conditioned Stimulus: Sounds or contexts associated with pleasurable or painful events.

• Conditioned Response: Emotional or physiological responses conditioned through experiences.

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING: PHASES

• Acquisition: The initial stage where the association between two stimuli is made or strengthened.

• Extinction: This occurs when a conditioned response no longer occurs.

• Spontaneous Recovery: The return of a conditioned response after a period of extinction.

  • Source: Pavlov (1927)

Classical Conditioning: Generalization & Discrimination

• Generalization: The occurrence of a conditioned response when presented with a new stimulus similar to the original conditioned stimulus:

  • Example 1: Veterans with combat-related PTSD may react to certain fireworks sounds.

  • Example 2: Child abuse survivors may respond with fear to certain facial expressions or tones after negative experiences.

• Discrimination: Responding only to the specific conditioned stimulus, not others, helping to differentiate between stimuli.

  • Example in marketing: Agencies aim to transfer positive feelings for celebrities to their products.

Classical Conditioning: Taste Aversion

• Definition: The tendency to avoid specific foods after they have been paired with sickness, even on a single occurrence.

  • Biological Preparedness: Our biological propensity to form certain associations faster due to survival mechanisms.

  • Example: Avoiding a specific dish after experiencing nausea after consuming it.

Classical Conditioning: A Learning Controversy

• Little Albert Experiment:

  • Researchers John B. Watson and Rosalie Raynor conditioned an 11-month-old to fear white rats.

  • The fear generalized to other similar stimuli.

• Ethical Implications: Both researchers faced professional consequences; they intended to reverse fear through discrimination and extinction trials but were unable to continue.

THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CLASSICAL AND OPERANT CONDITIONING

Comparing Two Kinds of Conditioning

Operant Conditioning: What is it?

• Definition: A learning process whereby individuals learn to associate rewards (reinforcements) or punishments with specific behaviors.

• Reinforcement: Rewards for specific behaviors that increase the likelihood of that behavior repeating.

• Punishment: Unpleasant consequences for behaviors that lower their likelihood.

Operant Conditioning: Law of Effect

• Thorndike’s Cats: Research involved cats in puzzle boxes, noting how quickly they would escape when food was present.

  • Over trials, escape times decreased.

• Law of Effect: Behaviors followed by rewards are strengthened, while those followed by punishments are weakened.

  • Developed by Edward Thorndike.

  • Influential in understanding the role of reinforcers.

Operant Conditioning: Skinner Box

• Operant Conditioning Chamber: A mechanical box (Skinner Box) designed by B.F. Skinner to train animals using reinforcements and punishments.

• Rats and pigeons learned behaviors that resulted in rewards, such as food pellets.

Operant Conditioning: Reinforcement

• POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT: Addition of a pleasant stimulus to enhance the likelihood of behavior in the future (e.g., pressing a lever for a food pellet).

• NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT: Removal of an unpleasant stimulus, encouraging behavior (e.g., buckling a seatbelt stops annoying beeps).

Operant Conditioning: Punishment

• POSITIVE PUNISHMENT: Addition of an unpleasant stimulus to decrease behavior likelihood (e.g., electric shock).

• NEGATIVE PUNISHMENT: Removal of a pleasant stimulus to diminish behavior likelihood (e.g., losing privileges).

Operant Conditioning: Shaping

• Shaping: A process where learning occurs through reinforcement over successive stages.

• Successive Approximations: Using reinforcers to condition a series of small steps that gradually reach the target behavior.

  • Applications include:

  • Speech therapy for autistic children.

  • Encouraging children to wear glasses.

Schedules of Reinforcement

• Schedules of Consequence: Refers to the frequency or regularity of reinforcement or punishment following a behavior.

• Continuous Schedule: Reinforcement or punishment occurs every time the behavior is displayed.

• Partial Schedule: Any reinforcement or punishment that does not occur after every instance of behavior (e.g., weekends with occasional rewards).

Let’s Practice: Continuous or Partial Reinforcement?

• Examples:

  • Trick or treating → Partial Reinforcement

  • Getting paid $12.50 hourly → Continuous Reinforcement

  • Winning the lottery → Partial Reinforcement

  • Mother sending cookies every Thursday → Continuous Reinforcement

  • Earning $20 for every A in school → Continuous Reinforcement

  • Newspaper delivery payment variability → Partial Reinforcement

  • Frequency of fishing catches → Partial Reinforcement

  • Surprising spouse with gifts → Partial Reinforcement

Partial Reinforcement Effect

• Definition: Behaviors acquired through intermittent reinforcement tend to be more resistant to extinction compared to those acquired through continuous reinforcement.

Partial Reinforcement Schedules

• Fixed Schedule: A specific number of responses or behaviors is required for reinforcement.

• Variable Schedule: A fluctuating number of responses or behaviors required for reinforcement.

• Interval Schedule: Reinforcement based on the passage of time rather than the number of responses.

Schedules of Reinforcement: Types

Ratio Schedules

• Fixed-Ratio Schedule: Reinforcement occurs after a set number of behaviors (e.g., paid per delivery).

• Variable-Ratio Schedule: Reinforcement varies based on the number of behaviors (e.g., lottery chance).

Interval Schedules

• Fixed-Interval Schedule: Reinforcement occurs after a pre-established period (e.g., weekly paychecks).

• Variable-Interval Schedule: Variability in reinforcement time encourages steady behaviors (e.g., baking).

Cognitive & Observational Learning: Insights & Cognitive Maps

• Cognitive Learning: Change in understanding or knowledge on a mental level.

• Insight Learning: Understanding a solution to a problem through contemplation (e.g., navigating a subway).

• Cognitive Map: A mental representation of a physical environment supported by acquired knowledge.

  • Example: Includes navigation aids for unfamiliar areas.[

• Latent Learning: Knowledge that exists but is not immediately observable; shown when food, for instance, becomes available.

  • Related Research: Tolman’s studies with rats demonstrating cognitive mapping without rewards.

Cognitive & Observational Learning: Modeling

• Observational Learning: Changing behavior based on seeing the consequences of others' actions.

• Modeling: Imitating others' behaviors especially when rewards are involved.

  • Four Necessary Elements:

  • Attention: The observer must focus on the modeled behaviors.

  • Memory: The observer must remember the behavior until they can enact it.

  • Imitation: The observer must be able to reproduce the behavior physically.

  • Desire: The observer must wish to perform the modeled behavior.

Cognitive & Observational Learning: Bandura’s Bobo Doll Studies

• Study Overview (1961): Participants included 72 children aged 3-6; they were exposed to aggressive adult behavior towards a Bobo doll.

  • Experimental Observations: Post-observation, children displayed more aggression if they watched aggressive behaviors.

  • Key Findings: Boys modeled aggression more than girls, especially with male models. Children exhibited verbal aggression equally.

  • Graphical representation of aggressive behaviors from the study available in Figure 9.4.

Chapter 9 Review Questions

• Identify the UCS from Pavlov’s experiment.

• Compare operant conditioning and classical conditioning.

• Describe which schedule of reinforcement is time-based.

• Definition of AMIM in observational learning.

• Provide examples of continuous reinforcement.

• State the definition of learning.

What did I learn in Chapter 9?

Learning Objectives

1. Explain the principles of classical conditioning, including applications and controversies.

2. Explain the principles of operant conditioning, its applications, and controversies.

3. Explain principles of cognitive and observational learning, their applications, and controversies.

Chapter 9 Study Resources

• Chapter 9 Study Guide

• Blackboard Flashcards and Practice Quiz

• Vantage Chapter Review

• Kahoot Practice

• Related Videos on Blackboard

• Quote: "Education is not just about facts; it’s about learning how to think." - B.F. Skinner