Grade 10 Social Studies Summary Notes

We and Our Society

Socialization transforms a biological individual into a functional member of society through the acquisition of social values, customs, and norms. Elements such as love, affection, cooperation, interaction, respect, and language facilitate this lifelong process across home, school, peer groups, and cultural activities. In Nepal, communities like the nomadic Raute in Surkhet (Lekbesi Municipality) and Dailekh (Gurans Gaunpalika) gradually integrate into mainstream society through government stipends, gift exchanges, and social interaction.

National identity defines the shared existence and pride of a country's citizens based on language, culture, religion, and geography. According to the National Census 2078 BS, Nepal is home to 142 castes and ethnicities, 124 spoken mother tongues, and 10 major religious communities. The religious composition includes 81.19% Hindu, 8.21% Buddhist, 5.09% Islam, 3.17% Kirat, 1.76% Christian, 0.35% Prakriti, 0.23% Bon, 0.01% Jain, 0.01% Sikh, and 0.00% Bahai (537 persons). The population comprises 1,42,53,551 males and 1,49,11,027 females, with legal recognition extended to gender and sexual minorities (LGBTIQ) and 10 categories of disabilities under the Disability Rights Act 2074 BS.

National pride encompasses symbols and values that elevate a nation's prestige globally. Nepal's national pride includes its multicultural diversity, historical bravery of Gorkhali soldiers, unique triangular national flag featuring the sun and moon, national anthem "Sayau Thungka Phool Ka", Gautama Buddha's birthplace in Lumbini, and Sagarmatha (Mount Everest), named by Historian Baburam Acharya in 2012 BS as the world's highest peak.

Development and Infrastructure of Development

The Human Development Index (HDI) measures progress across three essential dimensions: per capita income, life expectancy, and education. According to the Human Development Report 2025, Nepal scores an HDI value of 0.622, ranking 145th out of 193 countries globally and 6th among SAARC nations, behind Sri Lanka (0.776, 78th), Maldives (0.766, 93rd), Bhutan (0.698, 125th), India (0.685, 130th), and Bangladesh (0.685, 130th). Globally, Iceland ranks highest with an HDI score of 0.972. Improving Nepal's HDI requires prioritizing quality vocational education, enhancing public healthcare, reducing gender inequality, and boosting per capita income.

Sustainable development fulfills current human needs without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own requirements. Initiated globally following key milestones such as the 1972 Stockholm Conference, the 1980 World Conservation Strategy, the 1987 Brundtland Report "Our Common Future", and Millennium Development Goals, sustainable development balances environmental, economic, social, cultural, technical, human, and governance dimensions. Article 30 and Article 51 of the Constitution of Nepal guarantee the right to a clean environment and mandate environmental balance in development infrastructure.

Federalism distributes state authority across three tiers of governance: federal, provincial (7 provinces), and local (753 local levels). This system promotes proportional development, mobilizes local resources, reduces central dependency, and ensures inclusive democracy. Central government manages national defense, foreign policy, monetary policy, and borders, while provincial and local governments manage health, education, drinking water, and infrastructure.

National Pride Projects are large-scale central infrastructure projects designated by the Government of Nepal since fiscal year 2068/69 BS to drive economic transformation. Key projects include the Pushpalal Mid-Hill Highway (1,879 km length connecting Panchthar to Baitadi), Postal Highway (1,792.42 km blacktopped road across 20 Terai districts), Bheri Babai Diversion Multipurpose Project (48 MW capacity irrigating 60,000 hectares in Bardiya and Banke), Sunkoshi Marin Diversion Project (28.6 MW capacity irrigating 1,22,000 hectares in Madhesh Province), Melamchi Water Supply Project (supplying 510 million liters daily to Kathmandu Valley), Kathmandu-Terai Fast Track, and Pashupati Area Development Trust.

Our Social Values, Norms, and Responsibilities

National heritage consists of tangible assets such as temples, palaces, monuments, and lakes, as well as intangible assets like traditional rituals, folk music, and recipes. Nepal features four UNESCO World Heritage sites: Kathmandu Valley (encompassing 7 monument zones: Pashupatinath, Swayambhunath, Bouddhanath, Changunarayan, Kathmandu Durbar Square, Patan Durbar Square, and Bhaktapur Durbar Square), Lumbini, Chitwan National Park (952.63 sq km), and Sagarmatha National Park (1,148 sq km). Additional major sites include Pathibhara, Janaki Temple, Gadhimai, Kakrebihar, Muktinath, Rara Lake, Phewa Lake, Tilicho Lake, and various national parks.

Folk music, musical instruments, and dances define Nepal's cultural identity. Traditional instruments include Madal, Bansuri, Sarangi, Jhyali, Damaha, Dhyangro, Sahanai, Narsingha, Khaijadi, Binayo, Murchunga, and Tungna. Traditional folk and classical dances include Deuda (popular in Karnali and Sudurpashchim), Maruni, Jhimjhima, Ghatu, Dhan Naach (Limbu community), Sakela (Kirat Rai community), Sorathi, Jat-Jatin, Balan, Kartik Naach (established during King Siddhi Narsingh Malla), and Charya Naach.

National days commemorate pivotal national events and instil public civic responsibility, including Constitution Day (Ashoj 3), Republic Day (Jestha 15), Martyrs' Day (Magh 16), International Labor Day (May 1), International Women's Day (March 8), and National Children's Day (September 14). Prominent global personalities offer historical lessons: Nelson Mandela (born 18 July 1918, led anti-apartheid movement, served 27 years in prison, elected South Africa's first Black President in 1994, awarded Nobel Peace Prize in 1993, died 5 December 2013) and Malala Yousafzai (born 12 July 1997 in Swat Valley, advocated for female education, survived Taliban attack, won Nobel Peace Prize in 2014 as the youngest recipient). Society also bears a collective responsibility to protect senior citizens, helpless individuals, and persons with disabilities as guaranteed under Article 43 of the Constitution of Nepal and the Senior Citizens Act.

Social Problems and Solutions

Human trafficking is a grave crime involving illegal buying, selling, and exploitation of human beings. Under the Human Trafficking and Transportation (Control) Act 2064 BS, buying or selling individuals incurs 20 years imprisonment and a NPR 200,000 fine, while forced prostitution incurs 10 to 15 years imprisonment and a NPR 50,000 to 100,000 fine. Other social issues include sexual perversions, domestic violence against women and children, superstitions such as the Ghoomto system, Chhaupadi practice, and Dowry/Tilak system, as well as corruption.

Corruption distorts social justice, hinders economic progress, and misuses public assets. According to Transparency International's Corruption Perception Index 2024 covering 180 countries, Denmark ranks 1st as the least corrupt nation with 90 points, South Sudan ranks 180th with 8 points, and Nepal ranks 107th with a score of 34 points. In South Asia, Bhutan ranks 18th (72 points), while Afghanistan ranks 165th (17 points). Nepal combats corruption through constitutional bodies like the Commission for the Investigation of Abuse of Authority (CIAA), National Vigilance Centre, National Information Commission, and statutes like the Corruption Prevention Act.

International agencies play crucial roles in addressing social issues: UNICEF (established 1946, working in Nepal since 1964 for child health, protection, and education), UNFPA (established 1969, headquartered in New York, focusing on reproductive and maternal health), ILO (established 1919, UN specialized agency for labor rights and child labor elimination), and Transparency International (established May 1993 in Berlin, publishing the CPI since 1995).

Civic Consciousness

State governance relies on three balanced organs: Legislature, Executive, and Judiciary. Nepal features a bicameral Federal Parliament (Sanghiya Sansad) consisting of the House of Representatives (Pratidhindhi Sabha) with 275 members (165 FPTP [60%] and 110 Proportional Representation [40%], 5-year term) and the National Assembly (Rastriya Sabha) with 59 members (56 elected [8 per province] and 3 nominated by the President, 6-year term). Provincial Assemblies (Pradesh Sabha) represent unicameral legislative bodies across 7 provinces with 550 total members (330 FPTP and 220 Proportional). A bill becomes law after passing both houses and receiving presidential assent within 15 days under constitutional provisions.

The Executive branch (Cabinet/Council of Ministers) enforces laws, maintains internal order, directs administration, manages foreign policy, and formulates national budgets. Under Article 76 of the Constitution, the Prime Minister is appointed from the parliamentary party commanding a majority in the House of Representatives, heading a Cabinet capped at 25 members. The Judiciary interprets laws, protects fundamental rights, and resolves disputes. Nepal's three-tier court structure comprises the Supreme Court (Sarbochha Adalat, led by the Chief Justice and up to 20 Justices), 7 High Courts (Uchha Adalat), and 77 District Courts (Jilla Adalat).

Political parties articulate public interests, organize democratic elections, form governments, and provide constructive opposition. In Nepal, early political bodies included Nepal Praja Parishad (formed 1993 BS Jestha 20), Nepali Congress (formed 2006 BS), and Communist Party of Nepal (formed 2006 BS). Under the Constitution, parties registering with the Election Commission must hold internal democratic elections at least once every 5 years and maintain inclusive representation. Periodic elections every 5 years select executive and legislative leaders, backed by updated voter lists and voter ID cards issued to citizens aged 18 and above.

Human rights are inherent, universal, and inalienable rights belonging to every individual without discrimination. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) was adopted by the UN General Assembly on 10 December 1948, drafted under Eleanor Roosevelt with 30 foundational articles. In Nepal, the National Human Rights Commission (NHRC) was established in 2057 BS. Key civil rights include marital freedom under the Muluki Dewani Samhita 2074 BS and international treaties like CEDAW (1979) and ICCPR (1966). Consumer rights, guaranteed under Article 44 of the Constitution and the Consumer Protection Act 2075 BS, ensure safety, choice, information, compensation, and protection against unfair market practices, commemorated on World Consumer Rights Day every March 15.

Physical Geography, Climate, and Continents

Climate represents the average weather conditions of a geographic area over a long period, typically exceeding 30 years. Factors influencing climate include latitude, altitude (temperature drops by 1 degree Celsius for every 160-165 meters elevation gain), mountain orientation, distance from the sea, mountain barriers, ocean currents, wind characteristics, vegetation, and soil type. World climate is broadly categorized into three zones: Tropical Zone (0 to 30 degrees N/S, featuring Equatorial, Tropical Grassland/Savanna, Tropical Desert, and Tropical Monsoon sub-types), Temperate Zone (30 to 60 degrees N/S, featuring Mediterranean, Temperate Desert, Temperate Monsoon/China type, Temperate Maritime, Temperate Grassland/Steppe/Prairie/Pampas/Veld/Downs, and St. Lawrence/Manchurian sub-types), and Frigid Zone (60 to 90 degrees N/S, featuring Taiga coniferous forests and Tundra polar regions).

North America spans 10 to 80 degrees North latitude and 20 to 160 degrees West longitude, covering 24.7 million sq km (16.9% of world land). Key geographic features include the Rocky Mountains (highest peak Mount McKinley at 6,194 m), Death Valley (86 m below sea level), Lake Superior (world's largest freshwater lake), Mississippi-Missouri River (6,275 km), and Prairie grasslands. South America spans 12 degrees North to 55 degrees South latitude and 35 to 80 degrees West longitude, covering 17.84 million sq km (11.96% of world land). It contains the Andes Mountains (7,000 km long, highest peak Mount Aconcagua at 6,960 m), Amazon River (largest river by volume), Angel Falls (979 m high), Atacama Desert, Selvas tropical rainforests, and Pampas grasslands. Africa covers 30.22 million sq km (20.25% of world land), spanning 37 degrees North to 35 degrees South latitude. Features include Mount Kilimanjaro (5,895 m), Lake Assal (510 ft below sea level), Nile River (6,670 km long), Sahara Desert, Victoria Falls, and Savanna grasslands.

Earthquakes occur when stored seismic energy is released suddenly due to movement and friction along tectonic plates in the lithosphere. The point of origin underground is the hypocenter (focus), and the corresponding point directly above on the Earth's surface is the epicenter. Seismic magnitude is measured using a seismograph on the Richter scale, where each whole number increase represents a 32-fold increase in energy release and a 10-fold increase in ground shaking amplitude. In Nepal, seismic data is recorded by the National Seismological Centre under the Department of Mines and Geology, which maintains 21 seismic stations and 2 centers. Map making (cartography) utilizes methods like freehand, template, graphic/grid, carbon, tracing, GPS, and GIS, complemented by modern digital technologies such as Geographic Information Systems (GIS), Global Positioning System (GPS), and Google Earth.

Historical Developments of Nepal and World Wars

Nepal's political movement against the 104-year autocratic Rana regime gained momentum with early organizations like Prachanda Gorkha (1988 BS) and Nepal Praja Parishad (formed 1993 BS Jestha 20 under Tanka Prasad Acharya). In 1997 BS Magh, martyrs Shukraraj Shastri, Dharmabhakta Mathema, Ganga Lal Shrestha, and Dasharath Chand were executed. Following events like Jayatu Sanskritam (2004 BS) and the Bairagania Conference (2007 BS Ashoj 7-8), the armed revolution led by Nepali Congress and King Tribhuvan's departure to the Indian Embassy on 2007 BS Kartik 26 culminated in the tripartite Delhi Agreement on 2007 BS Phalgun 1. Monarchy and democracy were formally declared on 2007 BS Phalgun 7.

The democratic decade (2007-2017 BS) saw the promulgation of the Nepal Interim Government Act 2008 BS, Dr. K.I. Singh's rebellion in 2008 BS, and Nepal joining the United Nations on 14 December 1955. Nepal's first general election took place from 2015 BS Phalgun 7 to 2016 BS Baisakh 21 across 109 constituencies. Nepali Congress won 74 seats, and B.P. Koirala became the first elected Prime Minister on 2016 BS Jestha 13, with Krishna Prasad Bhattarai as Speaker. On 2017 BS Poush 1, King Mahendra executed a royal coup, dissolving parliament, arresting leaders, and introducing the partyks Panchayat system on 2017 BS Poush 22, formalized under the Constitution of Nepal 2019 BS (Poush 1).

Resistance during the Panchayat era included the Janakpur Bomb Case on 2018 BS Magh 9 (Durganand Jha hanged on 2020 BS Magh 25), Jhapa Uprising in 2029 BS (Sukhani martyrdom of Ramnath Dahal, Narayan Shrestha, Krishna Kuinkel, Biren Rajbanshi, and Netra Prasad Ghimire on 2029 BS Phalgun 21), Biratnagar Plane Hijacking on 2030 BS Jestha 25, Singha Durbar Fire on 2030 BS Ashad 25, Timurbote Incident in 2031 BS (execution of Captain Yagya Bahadur Thapa and Bhim Narayan Shrestha in 2033 BS), and the execution of Ratna Kumar Bantawa on 2035 BS Chaitra 27. Following student protests in 2035/2036 BS, King Birendra announced a National Referendum on 2036 BS Jestha 10, held on 2037 BS Baisakh 20, where the Reformed Panchayat System won over the Multi-party System. Subsequent events included the Piskar Incident (2040 BS Magh 1), Satyagraha and Bomb Case (2042 BS Ashad 6 led by Ramraja Prasad Singh), and the Joint People's Movement from 2046 BS Phalgun 7 to Chaitra 26, restoring multi-party democracy.

The multi-party era (2046-2063 BS) began with the Constitution of the Kingdom of Nepal 2047 BS (Kartik 23) and general elections in 2048 BS (PM Girija Prasad Koirala). Mid-term elections in 2051 BS led to a minority CPN-UML government under Manmohan Adhikari on 2051 BS Mangsir 14 for 9 months. CPN-Maoist launched an armed conflict on 2052 BS Phalgun 1. The Narayanhiti Royal Massacre occurred on 2058 BS Jestha 19, killing King Birendra and his family. King Gyanendra assumed direct power through royal coups on 2059 BS Ashoj 18 and 2061 BS Magh 19. The 7-party alliance and Maoists signed a 12-point agreement in New Delhi on 2062 BS Mangsir 7, launching the 19-day People's Movement II from 2062 BS Chaitra 24 to 2063 BS Baisakh 11. The reinstated House of Representatives passed the historic Declaration on 2063 BS Jestha 4, stripping royal powers and declaring Nepal a secular state. The Comprehensive Peace Accord (CPA) was signed on 2063 BS Mangsir 5.

Developments from 2063 to 2079 BS included the Constituent Assembly elections on 2064 BS Chaitra 28, the formal abolition of the 240-year monarchy on 2065 BS Jestha 15 establishing a Federal Democratic Republic, the interim election government under Chief Justice Khil Raj Regmi on 2069 BS Chaitra 1, 2nd CA elections on 2070 BS Mangsir 4, and the promulgation of the landmark Constitution of Nepal on 2072 BS Ashoj 3. Periodic local, provincial, and federal elections were subsequently conducted in 2074 BS and 2079 BS. Local historical sites, such as the Kotkalika Temple in Dhading (Dhuni Besi Municipality), serve as vital tangible heritage linking medieval Malla-era administration and Shah-era unification history.

The First World War (28 July 1914 - 28 June 1919) was triggered by the assassination of Archduke Francis Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary and his wife Sophie Chotek in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914 by Gavrilo Princip of the Black Hand society. The conflict involved the Allied Powers (UK, France, Russia, Italy, USA) and Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Turkey, Bulgaria), ending with the Treaty of Versailles on 28 June 1919 and the formation of the League of Nations on 10 January 1920. Prime Minister Chandra Shumsher deployed 16,544 Nepali troops led by Baber Shumsher, Padam Shumsher, Tej Shumsher, and Keshar Shumsher to assist the British.

The Second World War (1 September 1939 - 2 September 1945) began when Adolf Hitler's Germany invaded Poland. The Allied Powers fought the Axis Powers (Germany, Italy, Japan). Key events included atomic bombings by the USA on Hiroshima ("Little Boy", 6 August 1945) and Nagasaki ("Fat Man", 9 August 1945), culminating in Japan's surrender and the establishment of the United Nations on 24 October 1945. Prime Minister Juddha Shumsher deployed 250,000 Nepali troops led by Bahadur Shumsher to assist the Allies in theaters including Cyprus, Greece, Syria, Palestine, Malaya, and Burma.

Economic Activities

Energy is vital for economic development and industrialization. Nepal possesses theoretical hydroelectric potential of 83,000 MW across its 6,000 rivers, with 42,000 MW economically and technically feasible; as of February 2022, total generated hydroelectricity stood at 2,205 MW. Alternative energy sources include biogas, biomass, solar power, and wind energy. Tourism promotion leverages natural assets (Great Himalaya Trail, Sagarmatha, Annapurna), religious sites, cultural heritage, and adventure activities (rafting, paragliding, trekking).

Employment policy emphasizes formal national employment while regulating foreign employment. Pre-departure requirements for foreign employment include obtaining a passport, labor permit from the Department of Foreign Employment, mandatory orientation training, medical examination, and insurance coverage. Financial literacy teaches individuals sound money management, budgeting, saving, responsible borrowing, and investment. Financial instruments include bank accounts (Current, Savings, Fixed Deposit), electronic banking (Debit/ATM cards, Credit cards, Mobile Banking Apps), Demat accounts, and stock market shares (Ordinary Shares and Preference Shares).

Cooperatives operate on 7 international principles: voluntary and open membership, democratic member control, member economic participation, autonomy and independence, education/training/information, cooperation among cooperatives, and concern for community. Insurance transfers financial risk through Life Insurance (providing security against death or disability) and Non-Life Insurance (covering physical property loss from fire, earthquake, or flood). Government revenue comprises Tax Revenue (Direct taxes like Income Tax and Property Tax; Indirect taxes like Value Added Tax at 13%, Excise Duty, and Customs Duty) and Non-Tax Revenue (fees, fines, grants, royalties). Periodic economic planning in Nepal began with the 1st Five-Year Plan (2013 BS); currently, the 16th Periodic Plan (FY 2081/82 - 2085/86 BS) operates under the national vision "Governance, Social Justice, and Prosperity".

International Relations and Cooperation

Nepal's foreign policy is anchored in the UN Charter, Non-Alignment, and Panchasheel (5 Principles of Peaceful Coexistence: Mutual respect for territorial integrity and sovereignty, Non-aggression, Non-interference in internal affairs, Equality and mutual benefit, and Peaceful co-existence). Nepal maintains formal diplomatic relations with 183 nations (most recently Kiribati).

The United Nations (established 24 October 1945, 193 member states, headquarters in New York) functions through 6 primary organs: General Assembly, Security Council (5 permanent veto-wielding members: USA, UK, France, Russia, China; 10 non-permanent members), Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC, 54 members), International Court of Justice (15 judges, seated in The Hague, Netherlands), Secretariat (headed by Secretary-General António Guterres of Portugal), and the inactive Trusteeship Council. UN Specialized Agencies supporting global development include ILO (Geneva), FAO (Rome), WHO (Geneva), IMF (Washington DC), UNESCO (Paris), World Bank (Washington DC), ITU, UPU, ICAO, WMO, WIPO, IMO, UNIDO, IFAD, and UNWTO.

Globalization connects economies, cultures, and governance across national borders, while localization preserves distinct community identities, traditional knowledge, and local governance. Information and Communication Technology (ICT) utilizes hardware (tablets, interactive boards, e-readers) and software (cloud storage, flipped classroom tools, learning management apps) to transform education and administration. Contemporary global events highlight scientific advancements (such as NASA's Artemis lunar exploration program and James Webb Space Telescope) and humanitarian achievements, such as Nepali ophthalmologist Dr. Sanduk Ruit receiving Bahrain's Isa Award ($1 million / NPR 130 million) for pioneering low-cost cataract surgery restoring sight to over 130,000 individuals worldwide.

Population and Environment Management

Population dynamics in Nepal are documented through decennial censuses, beginning in 1968 BS (1911 AD), with the 12th census conducted in 2078 BS (2021 AD). According to the 2078 BS Census, Nepal's total population is 2,91,64,578, with an annual growth rate of 0.92%. Males constitute 48.98% (1,42,53,551) and females constitute 51.02% (1,49,11,027). Geographic distribution shows 53.61% of the population residing in the Terai, 40.31% in the Hills, and 6.08% in the Mountains. Urban areas account for 66.17% of the population across 293 municipalities, while rural areas account for 33.83% across 460 Rural Municipalities (Gaunpalika).

Age composition indicates that the economically active population (aged 15 to 59 years) stands at 65.20%, while children aged 0-14 years make up 27.83%, and senior citizens aged 60 and above account for 6.90%. The overall literacy rate for individuals aged 5 and above is 76.2% (83.6% for males and 69.4% for females). Family planning aligns demographic growth with household resources to achieve a high Quality of Life (QoL), evaluated through indicators such as the Physical Quality of Life Index (PQLI), Human Development Index (HDI), and basic needs fulfillment (food, housing, clothing, healthcare, education, clean drinking water, sanitation).

Rapid, unmanaged population growth accelerates environmental degradation through deforestation, urbanization, pollution of air, water, and soil, loss of biodiversity, and increased vulnerability to natural disasters. Sustainable population management requires balancing human activity with ecological carrying capacity, expanding community health initiatives, promoting preventive and promotive healthcare, and ensuring equitable access to primary health services.