ap psych unit 1

Interaction

The interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity).

Heredity

Also known as “nature,” refers to genetic or predisposed characteristics that influence physical, behavioral, and mental traits and processes.

Environmental Factors

Also known as “nurture,” refers to the external factors that one experiences.

Evolutionary Perspective 

The study of how natural selection affects the expression of behavior and mental processes to increase survival and reproductive success.

Eugenics

Psychological theorists have misapplied principles of the evolutionary perspective in harmful ways. The use of the evolutionary perspective to discriminate against others through selectively mating people with “desirable” traits and weeding out those with “undesirable” traits.

Twin Studies

A study conducted on identical twins.

Family Studies

A study which examines the patterns of a specific trait or behavior within a family. Essentially questioning if a certain trait, “runs in the family.”

Adoption Studies

A study which compares people in different family relationships to understand how heredity and environmental factors affect traits and behavior.

The Nervous System

The body’s speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems.

Central Nervous System 

Interacts with all processes in the body and includes the brain and the spinal cord.

Peripheral Nervous System 

Relays messages from the central nervous system to the rest of the body and includes the autonomic and somatic nervous systems.

Autonomic Nervous System 

Governs processes that are involuntary such as breathing and blood pressure, this system includes the parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous systems.

Sympathetic Nervous System 

The part of the autonomic nervous system that helps the body respond to stress by slowing digestive functions, elevating arousal, and preparing the body for action. It controls the fight-or-flight response.

Parasympathetic Nervous System 

The part of the autonomic nervous system that serves to calm the body, returning it to homeostasis following a fight-or-flight response, it instigates digestion of food, conserves its energy and allows the body to rest and repair.

Somatic Nervous System 

Governs processes that are voluntary such as the voluntary movement of muscles.

Neurons

Neural cells that create and transmit electrical impulses between cells.

Glial Cells

Cells that provide structure, insulation, communication, and waste removal functions for neurons.

Reflex Arc

Involve both the PNS and CNS working together. The PNS detects the sensory input (such as heat), sends a rapid signal to the CNS on sensory neurons, and interneurons in the spinal cord of the CNS coordinate the appropriate motor response (like withdrawing the hand) without thinking.

Sensory Neurons

Neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord.

Motor Neurons

Neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands.

Interneurons

Neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs.

Neural Transmission

The process of transferring information between neurons which occurs in an orderly, systematic way and involves the all-or-nothing principle, depolarization, refractory period, resting potential, reuptake, and threshold. Disruptions to this process could lead to disorders such as multiple sclerosis or myasthenia gravis.

All-or-nothing Principle

A neuron’s reaction of either firing with a full-strength response or not firing.

Depolarization

When there's a shift in a neuron's electrical charge that allows an action potential (nerve impulse) to occur.

Refractory Period

A period of inactivity after a neuron has fired.

Resting Potential

The period when a neuron is at baseline and is not actively generating a neural impulse. During this time there are more negatively charged ions on the outside of the neuron relative to the inside.

Reuptake

Th absorption of the neurotransmitter into the terminal buttons of the sending neuron

Threshold

The level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse.

Multiple Sclerosis 

A result of the deterioration in the myelin sheath, in which communication to muscles slows, with eventual loss of muscle control.

Myasthenia Gravis

A chronic neuromuscular disease that causes weakness in the voluntary muscles.

Neurotransmitter

Chemical messengers When released by the sending neuron, cross the synaptic gaps and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse.

Action Potential

The electrical impulse which travels down the axon, resulting in the release of neurotransmitters into the synapse.

Excitatory

Making an action potential more likely.

Inhibitory

Making an action potential less likely.

Dopamine

A neurotransmitter which influences movement, learning, attention, and emotion.

Serotonin

A neurotransmitter which affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal.

Norepinephrine (Noradrenaline)

A neurotransmitter which helps control alertness and arousal. It is heavily involved in the sleep cycle and low levels are associated with depression.

Glutamate

An excitatory neurotransmitter involved in learning and memory. 

GABA

An inhibitory neurotransmitter for the central nervous system associated with anxiety-related disorders.

Endorphins

A neurotransmitters linked to pain reduction and to pleasure; the body’s natural painkillers.

Substance p

A neurotransmitter involved in pain signaling.

Acetylcholine (ACh)

A neurotransmitter found in both central and peripheral nervous systems which enables muscle action, learning, and memory. 

Hormones

Chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands travel through the bloodstream and affect other tissues.

Adrenaline (Epinephrine)

Hormone which increases heart rate, blood pressure, and blood sugar, providing us with a surge of energy, known as the fight-or-flight response. 

Leptin

Hormone which causes the brain to increase metabolism and decrease hunger.

Ghrelin

A hunger-arousing hormone secreted by an empty stomach.

Melatonin

A sleep-inducing hormone released by the pineal gland.

Oxytocin

A stress-moderating hormone related to bonding, attachment, and stress reduction.

Agonists

A substance that mimics the actions of a neurotransmitter and encourages neural firing.

Antagonists

A substance that inhibits or blocks a response to the activation of certain receptors on cells.

Reuptake Inhibitors

A drug which blocks the reabsorption of neurotransmitters back into the cell.

Psychoactive drug

Drugs which influence a neurotransmitter’s function in various ways throughout the neural communication process and can lead to tolerance and/or addiction, creating significant withdrawal symptoms.

Stimulants

Psychoactive drugs such as caffeine and cocaine, which typically cause increased neural activity and activate the sympathetic nervous system.

Depressants

Psychoactive drugs such as alcohol, which typically cause decreased neural activity. They can create drowsiness, sedation or sleep.

Hallucinogens

Psychoactive drugs such as marijuana, which typically cause distortions in perception and/or cognition.

Opioids

Psychoactive drugs such as heroin, which typically act as pain relievers and create powerful withdrawal symptoms.

Tolerance

The phenomenon where the effects of a drug lessen with repeated exposure.

Addiction

Compulsive craving of drugs or certain behaviors (such as gambling) despite known adverse consequences.

Withdrawal

The discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing an addictive drug or behavior.

Brain Stem

The central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull, which includes the medulla.

Medulla

The base of the brain stem which controls basic functioning such as breathing, heart rate and basic reflexes.

Reticular Activating System

A nerve network that travels through the brainstem and thalamus and arouses the brain, playing an important role in alertness and consciousness.

Cerebellum

The “little brain” at the rear of the brainstem which controls coordination of movement, balance, and some forms of procedural learning.

Cerebral Cortex

The intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres which is divided into two hemispheres and includes the limbic system, corpus callosum, and the lobes of the cortex.

Limbic System 

Neural system (including the thalamus, hypothalamus, pituitary gland, hippocampus, amygdala) located below the cerebral hemispheres, associated with emotions and drives.

Thalamus

The brain’s sensory control center; it directs sensory input from the peripheral nervous system, then sends it to the cortex for further processing. 

Hypothalamus

It directs several maintenance activities such as eating, drinking, flight or flight, and fornication and is linked to emotion and reward.

Pituitary Gland

The endocrine system’s most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands.

Hippocampus

The part of your brain most involved in creating cognitive maps, processing and retrieving declarative memory and converts short-term memory to long-term.

Amygdala

Two almond-shaped structures in the limbic system; linked to emotions such as anger, aggression and fear. It also helps ingrain highly emotional memories.

Corpus Callosum

A massive bundle of nerves connecting the two brain hemispheres. It allows constant communication between the right and left hemispheres.

Lobes of the Brain 

Frontal Lobes: Includes the Prefrontal Cortex, Motor Cortex and Broca’s Area.

Parietal Lobes: Includes the Somatosensory Cortex

Occipital Lobes: Controls visual information processing

Temporal Lobes: Includes Wernicke’s Area

Occipital Lobes

Generally controls visual information processing and is located in the rear of the brain.

Temporal Lobes

Generally controls auditory and linguistic processing and is located on the sides of the brain.

Parietal Lobes

Generally controls association areas and the somatosensory cortex. These lobes are located near the back crown of the brain.

Association Areas

Areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking.

Somatosensory Cortex

Part of the Parietal Lobe which processes body touch and movement sensations, it is contralateral.

Frontal Lobes

Located just behind the forehead, it generally controls linguistic processing, higher-order thinking,and executive functioning, especially in the prefrontal cortex.

Prefrontal Cortex

Located in the forward part of the frontal lobes, it is involved in high level cognitive functions such as: thinking, planning, decision-making, and impulse control.

Motor Cortex

An area at the rear of the frontal lobes that initiates voluntary movements, it is contralateral meaning, the left hemisphere controls movement on the right side of the body.

Split Brain 

A condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain’s two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) connecting them.

Broca’s area 

An area in the left frontal lobe of the brain that is critical for the production of spoken language and directs the muscle movements involved in speech.

Wernicke’s area

An area in the left temporal lobe involved in language comprehension and expression which controls language reception.

Aphasia

Impairment of language, usually caused by left-hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke's area (impairing understanding).

Plasticity

The brain’s ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience.

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

A technique for measuring brain wave activity coming off the brain’s surface. EEG scans are used to identify issues such as epilepsy or sleeping disorders.

fMRI (functional MRI) 

A technique for measuring brain activity in specific parts of the brain. fMRI scans show brain function as well as its structure.

Case Studies

A descriptive technique in which an individual or group is studied  in-depth over a long period of time.

Lesioning

A surgical technique that removes parts of the brain to treat psychological or physical illnesses.

Consciousness

Our awareness of ourselves and our environment.

Sleep

Periodic, natural loss of consciousness—as distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma, general anesthesia, or hibernation.

Circadian rhythm

The biological clock; regular bodily rhythms (for example, of temperature and wakefulness) that occur on a 24-hour cycle.

Jet lag

Common sleep problems (like insomnia) and other symptoms you may experience after traveling a long distance quickly which disrupt our circadian rhythm.

Shift work

Those who would have gone to bed at 9:00 p.m. are now up until 11:00 p.m. or later because of night work, this disrupts their circadian rhythm.

Stages of Sleep

The stages of sleep are identified by their specific EEG patterns. 

NREM sleep occurs in Stages 1 through 3 and decreases in duration throughout the cycle. 

Hypnagogic sensations occur as one enters Initial Stage 1 sleep.

REM sleep is considered paradoxical because it produces waves similar to wakefulness, but the body is at its most relaxed.

NREM sleep

Non–rapid eye movement sleep; occurs in Stages 1 through 3 and decreases in duration throughout the cycle.

Hypnagogic Sensations

Brief hallucinations that occur as one enters Initial Stage 1 sleep.

EX: Having a sensation of falling (at which moment your body may suddenly jerk) or of floating weightlessly. 

REM sleep

Rapid eye movement sleep; occurs after other NREM sleep stages have been cycled through, and increasing in duration throughout the cycle, this is when people have dreams.

Dreaming

The sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person’s mind. These are notable for their hallucinatory imagery, discontinuities, and incongruities, and for the dreamer’s delusional acceptance of the content and later difficulties remembering it.

REM rebound

The tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation (created by repeated awakenings during REM sleep).

Activation-Synthesis Theory 

A theory that believes dreams are the brain's attempt to make sense of patterns of brain activity during REM sleep and REM helps preserve and develop neural connections.

Memory Consolidation Theory

A theory which suggests that sleep is useful for restoring and building out memories of the day’s experiences through organizing and consolidating memories

Memory Consolidation 

During deep sleep, the hippocampus  processes memories for later retrieval. After a training experience, the greater the hippocampus activity during sleep, the better the next day’s memory will be.

The Restorative Theory 

A theory which suggests that sleep is useful for restoring depleted resources such as hormones, neurotransmitters and energy used throughout a given day.

Insomnia

A sleep disorder in which people have recurring problems in falling or staying asleep.

Narcolepsy

A sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times.

REM sleep behavior disorder

A sleep disorder in which you physically act out vivid, often unpleasant dreams with vocal sounds and sudden, often violent arm and leg movements during REM sleep.

Sleep apnea

A sleep disorder that occurs when a person's airway collapses at night causing a halt in breathing, which leads to frequent waking, chronic fatigue, and loud snoring.

Somnambulism

Also known as sleepwalking, a harmless sleep disorder in which people get up and walk around while asleep.

Sensation

The process of detecting information from the environment that meets a certain threshold and transducing stimuli into neurochemical messages for processing in the brain.

Perception

The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events.

Absolute Threshold

The minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus at least 50% of the time.

Just-noticeable Difference

The minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50% of the time. 

Sensory Adaptation

Diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation.

Weber’s Law

The principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount).

Sensory Interaction

The process by which sensory systems work together to influence another.

EX: When the smell of food influences its taste.

Synesthesia

An experience of sensation in which one system of sensation is experienced through another.

Visual Sensory System

Enables you to be aware of color, light level, contrast, motion and other visual stimuli.
EX: If you “saw it” your visual system was responsible for that.

Retina

The photosensitive surface at the back of the eye which cells capture visual information that is transduced to the brain for processing

Blind Spot

The point at which the visual nerve exits the eye, leading the brain to fill in the gaps in the incomplete retinal images to perceive a relatively complete picture of the world. 

Accommodation

The process by which the eye’s lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina.

Nearsightedness

When the point of focus is in front of the retina, making distant objects appear blurry.

Farsightedness

When you can see distant objects clearly, however, objects nearby may be blurry.

Rods

Cells that lie in the periphery of the eye and detect shapes and movement, but not color, they play a role in light and dark adaptation.

The Trichromatic Theory

The theory that the retina contains three different color receptors—one most sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue—which, when stimulated in combination, can produce the perception of any color.

The Opponent-process Theory

The theory that the activation of one type of receptor cell in a pair (red/green,black/white, blue/yellow) leads to the inhibition of the other, which leads to the experience of seeing afterimages.

Cones

Photoreceptor cells located in the fovea of the eye that process color and detail.

Fovea

The central focal point in the retina, around which the eye’s cones cluster

Blue Cones

The short wavelength detecting cones in the retina.

Green Cones

The medium wavelength detecting cones in the retina.

Red Cones

The long wavelength detecting cones in the retina.

Afterimages

The lingering visual illusion in which retinal impressions persist after the removal of a stimulus, this is the result of certain ganglion cells in the retina being activated while others are not.

Ganglion Cells

The axons of which converge to form the optic nerve

Color Vision Deficiency

The inability to distinguish certain shades of color which involves damage or irregularities to one or more cones or ganglion cells (red/green, blue/ yellow).

Dichromatism

Color Vision Deficiency in which only two of the three primary colors can be discerned.

Monochromatism

Complete Color Vision Deficiency in which all colors appear as shades of one color.

Prosopagnosia

Also known as face blindness, a disorder characterized by the inability to recognize the faces of familiar people.

Blindsight

A disorder in which people respond to visual stimuli without consciously perceiving them.

Auditory Sensory System

Processes how we hear and understand sounds within the environment.

Sound

Occurs through the movement of air molecules at different wavelengths (called pitch) and amplitudes (called loudness).

Pitch

A tone’s experienced highness or lowness; depends on frequency.

Cochlea

A coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear; sound waves traveling through the cochlear fluid trigger nerve impulses.

Place Theory

In hearing, the theory that explains how individuals hear pitch. It suggests that specific frequencies are processed at specific places along the basilar membrane in the cochlea.

Volley Theory

In hearing, the theory states that neural cells can alternate firing, and by firing in a rapid succession they can achieve a combined frequency above 1000 waves per second.

Frequency Theory

In hearing, the theory that explains how humans hear different pitches. Vibrations along the basilar membrane trigger nerve impulses that are transmitted to the brain.

Sound Localization

Our ability to identify where sounds in our environment are coming from.

Conduction Deafness

Hearing loss caused by damage to the middle ear’s mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea.

Sensorineural Deafness

Hearing loss caused by damage to the inner ear cochlea receptor cells or to the auditory nerves.

Olfactory Stimuli

Stimuli relating to the sense of smell transduced and processed by structures in the nose and brain.

Smell

The only sense not processed first in the thalamus of the brain. 

Pheromones

The chemical messages produced for the olfactory system

Gustation

The sense of taste, and types of tastes include sweet, sour, salty, bitter, umami, and oleogustus.

Umami

The “delicious savory taste” in Japanese, its taste is often described as the meaty, savory deliciousness that deepens flavor.

Oleogustus

The unique taste sensation that is attributed to the perception of fats or lipids in food.

Supertasters

Someone who has a higher taste perception than the average.

Medium Tasters

Someone who has an average ability to sense different flavors.

Nontasters

Someone who has less taste perception than the average.

Sensory Receptors

The structures within the skin and brain process and/or transduce touch stimuli. 

EX: The sensation of “hot” is produced by the activation of warm and cold receptors in the skin.

Pain

The physical suffering or discomfort processed both in the body and in the brain.

Gate Control Theory

The theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological “gate” that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain, and the only way of reducing pain levels is through the application of a more pleasant sensation.

Phantom Limb Sensation

When people who have lost limbs report sensation or pain where the limb used to be.

Vestibular Sense

The sense of the body movements and position, it controls balance and is primarily detected by the semicircular canals and structures in the brain.

Kinesthesis

The sense of one’s body movement which allows one to be able to tell exact body position without looking at the body