Comprehensive Study Notes: 20th Century Global Conflicts and Foreign Policy

World War I and the United States Entrance into Global Conflict

• Factors Leading to Intervention     - The Lusitania Incident: The ship was a passenger transport vessel, though it was secretly being used to transport weapons to Allied forces. This became a point of contention when the Germans suspected it and engaged in unrestricted submarine warfare.     - Unrestricted Submarine Warfare: A German naval strategy involving sinking merchant or passenger ships without warning.     - The Zimmermann Telegram (1917):         - Origin: Sent by Arthur Zimmermann of the German Department of State.         - Intent: A secret telegraphic proposal to Mexico to form a military alliance against the United States.         - Promise: Germany promised to aid and supply Mexico in an attack on the U.S. In return, Mexico would regain territories lost during the Mexican-American War.         - Interception: The British intercepted and translated the telegram.         - Publication: President Woodrow Wilson had the telegram published in newspapers.         - Outcome: This publication was the primary catalyst for Congress to declare war on Germany.

Wilson’s 14 Points and the Post-War Settlement

• Founding Philosophy: Idealism     - Woodrow Wilson proposed the 14 Points based on the concept of "Peace without victory."     - These points emphasized self-determination and freedom of the seas.

• Reaction of the Allies     - The major allies—Britain, France, and Italy—rejected the 14 Points as too lenient.     - They argued that the post-war terms must be punitive (harsh and punishing) rather than idealistic.

• The League of Nations     - This was the only component of the 14 Points that was actually adopted.     - Failure for the United States: The U.S. Congress did not allow the nation to join the League.     - Reason for Non-participation: The U.S. wanted to maintain a policy of isolationism and neutrality to avoid becoming entangled in European conflicts.     - Consequence: The failure of the League of Nations is largely attributed to the lack of American membership and participation.

Interwar Period Foreign Policy (1920s)

• The Objective: Policy during the "Roaring Twenties" were designed specifically to avoid future wars. These efforts ultimately failed by $1939$.

• Major Treaties and Conferences     - Treaty of Versailles: Failed to maintain lasting peace.     - Washington Naval Conference (1921):         - Involved three powers with the largest navies: The United States, Great Britain, and Japan.         - Agreement: Agreed to reduce naval tonnage for large battleships to a ratio of $5:5:3$.         - Conditions: Japan agreed to the lower ratio (3) on the condition that the United States would not fortify or militarize The Philippines.         - Failure: The agreement failed because it did not restrict other types of naval vessels, allowing countries to continue militarizing.     - Four Power Treaty (1921):         - Signatories: The United States, Great Britain, France, and Japan.         - Terms: Respect one another's territories in Asia and the Pacific. Specifically, Japan agreed not to use aggression on The Philippines, and the U.S./Japan agreed not to use aggression in Indochina (French territory).     - Kellogg-Briand Pact (1927):         - Signed by $15$ nations.         - Agreement: Renounced war as an "instrument of policy."         - Failure: It did not outlaw "defensive war." Consequently, any country could claim defense as a justification for starting or engaging in a conflict.

The Cold War Era ($1945$ – $1980$)

• Defining the Cold War: A period of high tension between the two global superpowers: The United States and the Soviet Union.

• Strategy and Philosophy     - Domino Theory: The belief that if one small nation fell to communism, surrounding nations would follow like falling dominoes.     - Containment Policy: The central U.S. strategy to prevent the expansion of communism and Soviet influence.

• The Division of Europe     - Europe was divided into four sectors occupied by Allied powers.     - Germany and Berlin: Both were divided into East (Communist/Soviet) and West (Democratic/Allied) for $45$ years.     - Ideological Clash: Stalin’s vision for a Communist Europe clashed with the Western Allies' vision for a Democratic Europe.

• The Truman Doctrine     - Specifically targeted Greece and Turkey.     - Action: Provided military advice and financial aid to help these Mediterranean nations deter communist expansion.

• The Marshall Plan (1948)     - Context: Western Europe was facing another depression post-WWII.     - Financial Aid: Allocated approximately $12,000,000,000$ to various Western European countries.     - Goal: Rebuild economies, industry, and trade so nations could remain stable and avoid communist influence.     - Requirement: Countries accepting funds had to cooperate economically.

Cold War Alliances and Escalations

• Berlin Crisis: Berlin was split into a free West and communist East. In response to a Soviet blockade, the Berlin Airlift was conducted by Great Britain and the U.S., providing food, medicine, and supplies to residents.

• Military Alliances     - NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization): Formed by $12$ original members as a mutual defense alliance to deter Soviet communism.     - Warsaw Pact (1955): Created by the Soviets and their satellite nations as a direct response to NATO to deter democracy.

• The Cuban Missile Crisis     - Context: In $1959$, communism spread to the Western Hemisphere (Cuba).     - Bay of Pigs Invasion: A failed U.S.-led attempt by exiles to overthrow the Castro regime, which drove Cuba into a tighter alliance with the Soviets.     - Crisis: The U.S. spotted Soviet missiles in Cuba. President Kennedy established a naval blockade.     - Resolution: After intense negotiations at the brink of nuclear war, the Soviets removed missiles from Cuba, and the U.S. promised to remove missiles from Turkey.

Vietnam War and Military Conflict

• Combatants: North Vietnamese Army (Ho Chi Minh) and the Viet Cong (guerrillas in South Vietnam who were pro-communism).

• Ho Chi Minh Trails: Underground trails used by the North to infiltrate South Vietnam.

• The Tet Offensive: Occurred on the Vietnamese New Year (Tet). The Viet Cong and North Vietnamese Army launched a massive, coordinated invasion of over $100$ cities.

• The My Lai Massacre: A counter-offensive that turned into a war crime. It was not a military-ordered operation but involved the killing and raping of approximately $400$ innocent women and villagers in the city of My Lai. This event severely damaged the relationship between the U.S. and South Vietnam.

The Policy of Détente ($1971$ – Late 1970s)

• Definition: The easing of tensions between superpowers.

• Nixon’s Foreign Policy     - China: China became communist in $1949$ under Mao Zedong, leading the U.S. to sever diplomatic ties. In $1971$, Richard Nixon became the first U.S. president to visit the People’s Republic of China to restore relationships.     - Strategic Purpose: Easing tensions with China was a diplomatic method to also ease tensions with the Soviet Union.

• SALT (Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty)     - SALT I: An agreement between the U.S. and the Soviet Union to stop producing nuclear weapons for a period of $5$ years.     - SALT II: An attempt by Jimmy Carter in $1976$ to follow up on these limitations, which resulted in failure.