Theme 2 Notes

HASTINGS

Experience + prep:

Military:

  • Val es Dunes 1047 aged 18, fought w/ Henry I against rebels in Normany

  • Alencon rebellion 1051 learned effectiveness of sudden violence, castle defenders hung out hides for tanners son referencing illegitimacy, captured fortress took 32 men captive and cut off hands and feet, prompt surrender and neighbouring fortress of Dormfront also gave up siege

  • 1054 Geofrey Martel count of Anjou and Henry I invaded Duchy in two pronged assult, William reluctant to fight directly so divided forces in two, shadowed as advanced, waited for moment to strike, Geoffrey’s forces widely scattered pillaging Mortemer, surprise attack launched, so devastating endedd invasion, withdrawl

  • 1057 second two pronged assult, another ambush, last time French king invaded

  • 1063 took advantage of civil war in Anjou, took Maine after deliberate destruction to provoke terror

  • 1064 subdued Brittany with Harold

  • Fully secured borders of Normany - crucial for 1066

  • One weakness - little experience of set-piece battles apart from 1066

  • Friends and followers loyal, assembled around him, WilliamFitzOsbern, Roger Montgomery - young ambitious warlike

Diplomatic:

  • Secured backing of nobility via persuasion, hazardous - force of personality and promise of great rewards

  • Formal protest sent to Harold

  • Norman case set out before Pope Alexander by Lanfranc Abbot of St Stephen at Caen - probably stressed Harold’s moral perjury, moral corruption of English church exemplified by pluralism of Archbishop Stigand

  • Pope sent papal banner as blessing

  • This lured soldiers from outside Normandy - esp Brittany Ponthieu Flanders to join banner, promise of riches and outstanding military rep as well as blessing of head of faith

Logistical:

  • 1000 total ships, 100 from Robert of Mortain

  • Ready by August lying off Dives-sur-Mer

  • 10,000 men encamped, 9,000 cartloads of food and fuel monthly

  • 2,000 war horses alone, 13 tonnes of grain and hay a day

  • Provisioning from Aug to Oct w/out pillaging a significant achievement

  • Avoided ill discipline and disease

  • Sept - moved fleet to mouth of Somme to exploit shorter crossing, then waited for favourable wind

Invasion:

  • Arrival 28 Sept at Pevensy - stumbled and proclaimed was seizing England

  • Would have been immediate resistance had he landed in summer

  • Quickly moved to Hastings - benefit of a large harbour, defensible location, easy to retreat

  • Wanted to fight tired Harold quickly in place of own choice, simple plan to tempt him, at worse could be blockaded in Hastings peninsula by Saxon fleet on one side army on other

  • So sent armies to ravage lands part of Harold’s Wessex Earldom, houses and huts burnt to ground

  • Harold raced army from York down Ermine Street, 305km in 8 days, then 5 in London gathering forces, then 149km south to enemy

  • Harold’s personal desire to avenge damage to Wessex, morally bound to help subjects as lord and king but rationally did not know whether W recieving reinforcements from continent and growing stronger, also could use Stamford Bridge style surprise attack or bottle William up

  • Poor choice - arrived for battle with exhausted troops and reinforcements still coming, a few more days = more formidable army including archers forced to leave behind at Stamford and Housecarls from E and M

  • Also could have used fleet to cut of W’s supply line

  • Arrived in Oct, spotted instantly by Norman scouts removing option of surprise…

Battle:

  • Light initial manouvering - Harold occupied high ground on Senlac Hill, W had to remove H from hill and defeat him that day then march to London and secure crown but for H simple draw would suffice

  • H’s plan to hold strong position where Norman cav would be least effective, spoke to men stressing invincibility if they stayed firm

  • H’s army - 7,000 to 8,000 men, inf organised in ten ranks all on foot, well armed and equipped housecarls and thegns at front - protective shield wall, lightly armed fyrdmen behind, fought on foot viking style making it hard for Harold to truly command once battle commenced though his position boosted morale

  • W’s army - similar size, high prop. professional fighting men, W placed archers and crossbowmen in front line, heavy inf in hauberks carrying spears, rear had elite knights on war horses reflecting seq planned attack, left Bretons centre Normans right French - 3 divisions, W at centre riding warhorse and directing w/mace, mounted knights and archers represented future of medieval warfare - crucial in victory

  • Start - W aggressively attacked, archers fired into shield wall but line held firm, W sent inf up slope, line held firm, first cav assult, line held firm

  • Crisis point - Pattern of attack continued w/ archers, inf, cav until Bretons broke fleeing back down slope, mounting losses, followed by English fyrdmen, W’s centre pulled back to avoid isolation, rumour W had been killed, Normans on brink of collapse

  • Armies reforming - H failed to capitalise by ordering charge so potential to sweep from hill lost, W pushed back helmet rode across lines showing was alive, Normans solidified and turned on isolated English peasants where difference in armies became evident - poorly armed armoured and trained fyrdmen easily cut down by Norman knights

  • Decisive blow - 2pm pause to reform, W continued pattern of attack, used feigned retreat to weaken shield walls significantly degrading Harold’s forces, 4pm severely weakened, W’s leadership skills came to fore, determined to rally, ordered one last assult to break line, co-ordinated attack so archers fired high to ensure arrows would land on top of Saxons, cav followed by inf then smashed through shield wall, H killed and English resistance crumbled, English housecarls gathered around H and went down fighting

Assessment:

  • Outcomes not inevitable - both armies capable of carrying the day, though Harold weakened by loss of trained fighters at S Bridge, and limited in ability to command held higher ground shield wall extremely powerful in defence and did not need to deliver knockout blow

  • William’s leadership - Victory stemmed from careful prep, broad coalition of support, logistical organisation, defensive position and ravaging, strat paid off to neutralise Harold’s advantage, superior generalship honed by youth campaigns, relentless attacks and leadership ability to rally wavering troops

  • Harold’s mistakes - Rush to engage threw away advantages stemming from role as head of state and family, did not take long view - waiting would have allowed hiim to assemble an overwhelming army, lacked experienced housecarls, folly apparent when untrained peasants repeatedly broke shield wall during feigned retreats, lacked inspiration to order general charge nor was able to keep army on hill in defensive position

  • Unequal armies - Decisive edge for W due to heavy cav and archers, Harold’s foot fighting limited command ability, William’s horse-borne prominence allowed him to rally troops following Breton collapse, outcome not inevitable despite undoubted advantage of W’s trained and mobile force, close-run until moment of H’s death

INTERNAL THREATS:

Position + strategy:

  • Battle damaged army in hostile land, 2.5m Anglo Saxons

  • Great city of London blocked advance, North unknown and hostile

  • English who had not fought showed no signs of submitting

  • E and W reached London w/ forces while Stigand but forward Edgar Ae as new king, N earls refusing

  • Had to take the offensive and gain control of s-east - had to be crowned in London asap

Offensive + resistance:

1066:

  • Terror tactics, launched attack on Romney, marched on Dover and Canterbury, both surrendered

  • London had soldiers ready to fight according to scouts so did not want to risk direct assult

  • Brutal circular march through surrounding shires isolated and intimidated city

  • Minimal risk to own forces - knew from experience

  • Wasted parts of Surrey and Hampshire, submission of Winchester

  • Crossed Thames at Wallingford, established castle to prevent western relief reaching London

  • Sign strat working - Stigand left London to offer surrender

  • W finished encirclement by blocking Ermine Street and Watling Street cutting off London from north

  • Established castle at Berkhamsted and waited

  • Panic hit London and remaining E leaders surrendered

  • Crowned Christmas Day at Westminster Abbey, followed service of King Edgar’s coronation 973, reinforcing self as true heir and successor of Edward, anointed by Archbishop Ealdred of York gaining aura of blessing by God - could now tap into Anglo Saxon loyalty to crown no matter its wearer

  • Normans insecure, mistook English shouts of acclaimations for revolt, guards panicked setting fire to nearby houses, fighting broke out outside Abbey

1067

New Year

  • No signs of resistance, returned to Normany leaving William FO and OB as regents

Summer

  • Harshness of regency = small rebellion in Kent, Eustace of Boulogne W’s standard bearer at Hastings crossed channel from France to become leader - personal desire for power and reward

  • Rebels easily cut to pieces by Dover castle garrison, Eustace fled and later reconciled w/ W

  • Initial lack of concerted English resistance - shock of heavy losses of warrior class in battles, absence of leadership, all too young and inexperienced to unify nation in revolt, many thegns prepped to accept regime to preserve estates, encouraged by W’s initial conciliation policy - promised to rule in accordance with Edward and traditional elites

Late in year

  • Intel reaching Normans that English exiles seeking help from overseas esp active in court of King Sweyn of Denmark

End of year

  • Exeter rebellion due to increased taxation to fund occupation and presence of H’s mother Gytha, W made dangerous sea crossing in Dec, aware that S-W had been Godwin stronghold and had made no official submission

1068

Jan

  • Marched forces into Devon despite harsh weather, included Saxon troops raised under Saxon levy system without issue

  • W’s troops laid siege to English rebels in Exeter, heavy losses in assulting walls

  • Men of Exeter attempted to rally support from region, none found, submitted after 18 day siege

  • Lenient terms from W, established castle to ensure future control over city, staged march through rest of Devon and Cornwall to underline strength

  • Recieved submission of Bristol and Gloucester

  • Gytha fled to Flat Holme island in Seven Estury where wives of many noblemen hiding, then on to Flanders

Summer

  • Harold’s sons crossed over from Ireland to raid

  • Atempted to storm Bristol, beaten off by local Eng forces than routed by Eng thegns in north Somerset

Late in year

  • Signs of impending trouble, Edgar defected from W’s court to Scotland, then E and M fled to earldoms, resistance building as despite promises A-S elite wielded little power and influence + E personally embittered W had broken promise to marry one of daughters to him

  • William staged a series of lightning raids into Warwickshire, Nottinghamshire, Yorkshire, blazing trail of destruction, constant carrying

  • Policy worked - surrender of E and M, established castle in York then returned south

1069

January

  • Rebels attacked Durham killed Norman earl Robert Commines and knights

  • News spread to York - insurgents laid siege to castle

  • EAe moved into region from Scotland to assume leadership

  • Lightning march - W able to relieve garrison at York though E escaped back to Scotland, established second castle, returned south

Summer

  • Men from Somerset and Devon laid siege to new castle at Montacute

  • Harold’s sons launched second raid from Ireland - superior force of 60 ships

  • William hard pressed in north so relying on Count Brian of Brittany and Bishop Geoffrey of Countances to restore order - did not disappoint him, history’s last sight of Harold’s sons

  • Events spiralled as Danish fleet of 240 ships appeared off Kent led by Sweyn’s sons Harold and Canute - appeals from exiles fulfilled

  • Fleet raided way up e. coast of England, then anchored off Humber

  • Yorkshire descended into revolt, Edgar arrived w/ new force to join Danes

September

  • Edgar and Danes jointly siezed York

  • Rebellion so threatening as in fiercely independant region, resented southern rule, rebels had figurehead with powerful claim, backing of Danish army, threat of Scottish invasion due to Malcom’s links w/ Ed and desire to control Northumbria + forces stretched as fresh round of uprisings in S. West and along Welsh border

Winter

  • Speed and brutality - rapid march from Nottingham to York devastating land and reoccupying city

  • Searched for Danes who refused to give battle

  • Wore crown during Christmas to show authority

  • Brutal harrying - split troops into war bands set about systematic destruction

  • Domesday book later designated Yorkshire 1/3 waste

  • Crossed Pennines in winter to deal w/ N.W, pushed some troops to the point of mutiny but W drove them on by force of personality

  • Achieved obj. - rebels unprepared for winter assult, W took Chester and Stafford without difficulty

  • Established castles and unleashed army to ravage region

  • Had to deal with danger posed by Danish fleet which had wintered in Humber however when Eng allies routed W able to disperse them with bribe

  • Rebellious spirit of north crushed

1070

Spring

  • Rebels began collecting in East Anglia centred on Isle of Ely

  • Occupied by section of Danish fleet showing Viking promises counted for little

  • Hereward the Wake - local thegn whose lands confiscated by Normans - emerged as rebel leader

  • Ely an ideal location as easily defensible, surrounded by marshland, stone walls of abbey a stronghold, strategically located to allow mobile Danish fleet to strike northwards to Lincolnshire and Yorkshire, east into Midlands and south to London + sea access meant could potentially recieve reinforcements from thousands of Eng exiles on continent

June

  • Backed by Danes launched devastating raid on Peterborough

Summer

  • W - diplo and force, realised Danes most important factor, bought them off and they sailed home

  • Entrusted capture of Ely to deputies

  • Hereward able to use geography and skill to ambush and hold off attackers

  • Ely bedcoming beacon of resistance

1071

  • Morcar arrived to make stand, Edwin killed somewhere in north while trying to flee to Scotland

  • W took control of operation in summer

  • Sent fleet to blockade island

  • Constructed causeway through marsh

  • Allowed army to advance and launch successful assult

  • Hereward disappeared into legend, Morcar imprisoned for life

1075

  • Ruling class conspirators - Ralph de Gael earl of Norfolk, son of Breton who had served W loyally as Earl of EA, Roger de Breteuil earl of Hereford, son of WfO, Waltheof earl of Northumbria son of great Earl Siward

  • Breton, Norman and English backgrounds - trouble in both England and Normandy?

  • Plan hatched at wedding feast, aimed to divide kingdom in three with one becoming king, had to secure support of Danes

  • Failed to pose serious threat

  • W had remained in Normandy relied on Lanfranc Archbishop of Canterbury as regent to organise against

  • Lanfranc gained advance warning of plot - Waltheof had cold feet and confessed

  • Two remaining earls pressed ahead

  • Ralph advanced west from Norwich, Roger east from Hereford, aimed to unite forces and isolate North

  • Failed to gain much support and crucially Danish army never materialised

  • Earls in no position to take on two powerful Norman armies raised against them led by men of high calibre such as Odo of Bayeux

  • Ralph forced back to castle, when came under siege left defence to wife and fled to Brittany to continue fight

  • W ensured followers captured and mutilated

  • Roger captured and spent rest of life in prison

  • Waltheof executed following year

  • When Danes finally arrived with 200 ships rebellion over, sacked York and left

Assessment of W’s leadership in dealing with revolts:

  • Determined resistance to Norman rule now over

  • Uncoordinated rebellions allowed W to crush them

  • Never a general countrywide revolt

  • Loyal able supporters entrenched in powerful castle throughout country winning crucial battles for him

  • Led from front when threat greatest and would rapidly and decisively move into danger zone

  • Benefitted from ineffectiveness of Danes and Scots in aiding rebellion

  • Prepared to be completely ruthless and widespread wasting tactic extremely effective at deterring future uprisings

EXTERNAL THREATS:

Wales:

Background

  • Anglo-Welsh border fluid, both sides always seeking to expand territory and influence

  • State of Wales - fractured and divided warring kingdoms

August 1067

  • Some Welsh princes intent on taking advantage of post-conquest English chaos, Prince of Gwynedd and Powys Bleddyn ap Gygyn and brother Rhiwallon allied with English thegn Eadric the Wild

  • Disposessed of Shropshire estates by Normans so had been fighting low level war with some success

  • Could now expand ambitions with help

  • Joint invasion of Hrefordshire ravaging land and laying siege to Hereford castle

  • Unable to take and withdrew without treasure

1069

  • Revolt flared as Prince Bleddyn and Eadric led men to ravage Shropshire Cheshire Staffordshire and burn Shrewsbury town after failing to take castle

1070

  • Eadric made peace w/ William realising futility of resistance

William’s strategy to ensure border stability

  • 3 new earldoms created, centred on Chester in North - Hugh d’Avranches, Shrewsbury centre - Roger Montgomery, Hereford South - WfitzO

  • Created buffer zone and allowed westward expansion

  • W’s level of involvement generally passive - too busy w/ affairs in England and Normandy

  • No grand plan of conquest - beyond maintaining border integrity and tribute content to leave earls to own devices

Norman expansion

  • Hugh expanded as far as River Conwy in Gwynedd, raiding as far west as Snowdonia by end of W’s reign

  • Roger M pushed accross Offa’s Dyke and founded castle and town named Montgomery after Normandy home while men advanced along Severn valley setting up own castles

  • Fitz started extending Norman control into kingdom of Gwent establishing towns and castles at Chepstow and Monmouth

  • Process continued by son but advance temporarily halted by 1075 revolt of earls

  • Policy of steady earl driven expansion continued under William II, high point of Norman control 1093

  • Had built castles in Banger Naernarfon and Anglesy so extended control over north coast

  • Kingdoms of Brycheiniog Morgannwg and Dyfed taken in South

  • Castle established as far west as Pembroke

  • Soon after harshness of Norman rule resulted in resistance led by princes of Powys and Gwynedd

  • By 1100 Normans in north had been driven back to Conwy while much of Powys in centre and Dyfed in south had been lost

1081

  • W’s only expedition into Wales

  • Show of force after Rhys ap Twedwr king of Deheubarth had defeated Norman-backed Welsh rivals in battle

  • Advanced length of Wales, W brought army to a halt at St Davids

  • Once there point made recognised Rhys as ruler of Deheubarth in return for oath of loyalty and £30 annual tribute

1095

  • William II forced to invade - little impact

1097

  • William II forced to invade - little impact

Scotland:

Background

  • Longstanding disputed flashpoints - border territories of Lothian Northumbria and Cumbria

  • Scots had held Cumbria since 1018, 973 England took Northumbria and Scots Lothian

  • Malcom III had growing southerly ambitions

1058

  • Malcom came to power with Eng help, launched raid into Northumbria

1061

  • Further attack by Malcom to recover southern Cumbria

1066

  • Had provided support to exiled Tostig, saw opportunity to weaken England’s hold over Northumbria in wake of Hastings

1068

  • Saw N rebellion as first chance to weaken Eng hold on Northumbria

  • But swift collapse discouraged Malcom from sending aid

1069

  • W secured oath of loyalty from Malcom

  • Did not stop him from providing safe have for Edgar and marrying his sister Margaret

  • Fall of Northumbria' to W’s forces

  • Rebels seeking santury in Scotland again

  • Prospect of hostile English neighbour too close to Cumbria and Lothian

  • As show of force and to destabilise region raided into Northumbria sacked Durham and Cleveland

1072

  • W ready to deal with Scottish threat - fleet blockaded coast while he personally led army of mostly horseman across River North ravaging as he went

  • Full of risk - late in campaigning season, 400km from nearest base in York, unknown terrain

  • Second Eng king to invade Scotland

  • M refused to give battle

  • Treaty at Abernethy - M made homage so officially recognised new English regime - more likely personal pledge of allegience than acceptance of overlordship, W neutralised rebel safe haven by securing expulsion of Edgar and others

1079

  • Malcom launched another raid into Northumbria

  • Further English invasion by Robert C in response - Malcom avoided battle and escaped lightly by offering submission

  • On return to E Robert C established Newcastle castle strategically high on northern border to allow future icursions into Scotland

  • Northumbria remained uncontrollable and lawless fulfilling M’s policy of maintaining buffer

1090

  • Raid into Northumbria

  • Reprisal march from WR next year

  • M refused to give battle and submitted

1092

  • WR marched into Cumbria, seizing and fortifying Carlisle

  • Signalled intention Cumbria would be fully incorporated into England - peasant settlers brought from South + was placed under Durham’s ecclesiastical jurisdiction

  • Huge blow to Malcom

1093

  • M travelled south to Gloucester to discuss Cumbria but WR refused to meet him

  • Staged raid into Northumbria in anger, ambushed and killed

Contrasts:

  • Private actions of Norman lords saw significant sections of Wales steadily brought under English rule

  • William II and second and lords never aimed at similar takeover of Scotland

  • Partly because of remoteness from centre of power in South of England

  • Made a conquest a near impossible proposition

  • Long-established kingdom ruled by king unlike Wales which was divided into warring kingdoms

  • So encouraged use of more routine tools of statecraft including diplomacy and military incursions to punish rather than conquer

MILITARISATION:

Feudalism:

Concepts

  • Society geared towards war

  • Land granted to small elite in exchange for military service

  • Subinfeudiation - similar relationship could exist between tenant in chief and tenant

  • Oaths made arragement binding and formal

  • Underpinned by principle established by W as conqueror that all land belonged to him

  • Idea of freeholding disappeared - land being held from others and not owned

Tenants-in-chief

  • Granted almost ¾ England

  • Earls, archbishops, bishops, abbots, barons

  • Close inner circle of 11 held ¼ of all land

  • All Norman magnates who played pivotal role in invasion rewarded by land

  • Included William FitzO and Roger M, two half brothers Odo and Robert of Mortain

  • Obligated to provide a certain number of knights to carry out garrison duty in royal castles, fighting rebels or campaigning in Scotland and Wales in exchange for land

  • Quota known as servitum debitum, service owed, could produce army of 4-5,000

  • Church handed ¼ of England, not exempt from military obligation

Knights

  • Tenants in chief could maintain knights by granting either land in exchange for service or keeping in household and providing food lodging and pay

  • Landholding knights enfeoffed with their fief allowing them to live off rents from land but not a road to riches

  • Status only somewhat above well off peasant

  • Household knights elite, well trained professional soldiers

  • Best could migrate to royal household and formed nucleus of Anglo Norman army

  • Also many openings in baronial households

  • WfitzO kept household so large it annoyed king

  • Private armies being created a novel feature stemming from insecurity occupiers felt on their estates

  • Close bonds of loyalty between lord and knights reinforced by symbolic acts - oath-taking, granting of arms and armour, dubbing a man or delivering a blow to the back of the neck to make him a knight, then knight became lord’s vassal

Land tenure

  • Redistrubution likely piecemeal

  • Occured as and when land came through death and confiscation

  • Instead of one uniform system terms depended on local circumstances and traditions

  • First gen post conquest - feudal service often commuted to payments called scutage - WI and WII found this more useful as in practice tended to use mercenaries rather than feudal host to save time and ensure had competent men

Castles:

What?

  • One of first acts on landing to set up prefabricated castle at Hastings

  • Motte and Bailey castle became key instrunment of war in England

  • Earth mound crowned with wooden tower, surrounded by ditch and wooden palisades

Where?

  • Constructed wherever trouble flared

  • Surrender of Exeter, then as north quelled castles in Warwick, Nottingham, York, Lincoln, Huntingdon, Cambridge

  • On Welsh border chain of castles built to watch over mountain passes - became base of Norman penetration

  • Newcastle and Carlisle to guard northern frontier and provide staging posts for cross-border expeditions

Why?

  • Outnumbered overstretched Normans found castles provided vital points where troops could be concentrated and patrols sent out to dominate surrounding landscape

How many?

  • Over 80 by 1100

  • 2/3 built in towns

  • Demolition of hundreds of homes

  • Had been largely unknown in pre-conquest Eng apart from a few examples in Herefordshire to guard against Welsh

Impact

  • Changed nature of warfare from open battle to sieges

  • Rebels now had to successfuly storm these forts, very costly to do

  • Saxon lack of castles as key reason for military failure

  • Importance shown by high calibre men installed as castellans or castle leaders

  • All significant Norman magnates

  • York - first castle entrusted to William Malet, second to William fitzOsbern

  • Symbol of conquest

  • Stressed permanence of Norman presence

  • Building to intimidate shown by White Tower in London started in 1070s by William constructed using stone imported from Caen

  • Finished around 1100

  • Built two further stone towers or keeps at Chepstow and Colchester

From late 11th c

  • Many Norman magnates followed example, redeveloping motte and bailey fortifications, always meant to be temporary, into solid stone-built structures

  • As threat of rebellion died down castles became seats of local government and so inescapable feature of everyday life