Chapter 1 Lecture A&P

Gross Anatomy: study of observable structures • Histology: study of tissues, cells • Pathology: study of incorrect/ diseased anatomy ANATOMY is the study of structure ▪ • Physiology: how the systems work • Pathophysiology: study of how disease worksPHYSIOLOGY is the study of how these structures function

Bio 201 A&P ASU DPC T. Penkrot

Topics of Anatomy

▪ • Observe • Manipulate • Palpate • Auscultate To study anatomy, one must know anatomical terminology and be able to:

Anatomy - The Study of Form

▪ Examining structure of the Human Body ▪ • cutting and separation of tissues to reveal their relationships Cadaver dissection ▪ • study of more than one species in order to examine structural similarities and differences, and analyze evolutionary trendsComparative anatomy ☺

Bio 201 A&P ASU DPC T. Penkrot

Topics of Physiology

▪ To study physiology, one must understand basic physical principles (e.g., electrical currents, pressure, and movement) as well as basic chemical principles (e.g., gradients)

Principle of Complementarity

▪ Function always reflects structure ▪ What a structure can do depends on its specific form

Bio 201 A&P ASU DPC T. Penkrot

1.5 Anatomical Terms

Anatomical Position and Directional Terms

▪ • Body erect, feet slightly apart, palms facing forward with thumbs pointing away from body Standard anatomical position ▪ • Direction is always based on standard anatomical position • Right and left refer to the body being viewed, not right and left of observer

Figure 1.7a Regional terms used to designate specific body areas.

Cephalic

Frontal

Orbital

Nasal

Oral

Mental

Cervical

Thoracic

Sternal

Axillary

Mammary

Abdominal

Umbilical

Upper limb

Acromial

Brachial (arm)

Antecubital

Antebrachial

(forearm)

Carpal (wrist)

Manus (hand)

Pelvic

Inguinal

(groin)

Palmar

Pollex

Digital

Lower limb

Coxal (hip)

Femoral (thigh)

Patellar

Crural (leg)

Fibular or peroneal

Thorax

Abdomen

Metatarsal

Digital

Hallux

Anterior/Ventral

Pubic (genital)

Pedal (foot)

Tarsal (ankle)

Figure 1.7b Regional terms used to designate specific body areas.

Cephalic

Otic

Occipital (back

of head)

Upper limb

Acromial

Brachial (arm)

Olecranal

Antebrachial

(forearm)

Cervical

Back (dorsal)

Scapular

Vertebral

Lumbar

Manus (hand)

Metacarpal

Sacral

Gluteal

Digital

Lower limb

Femoral (thigh)

Popliteal

Sural (calf)

Fibular or peroneal

Pedal (foot)

Calcaneal

Back (Dorsum)

Plantar

Posterior/Dorsal

Perineal (between

anus and external

genitalia)

Figure 1.8 Planes of the body with corresponding magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans.

Median (midsagittal) plane

Vertebral

column

Frontal (coronal) plane

Right

lung

Heart

Left

lung

Liver

Transverse plane

Aorta

Pancreas

Spleen

Rectum Intestines

Liver

Stomach

Spleen

Subcutaneous

fat layer

Spinal

cord

Figure 1.9 Dorsal and ventral body cavities and their subdivisions.

Cranial

cavity

(contains

brain)

Cranial

cavity

Vertebral

cavity

Dorsal

body

cavity

Superior

mediastinum

Pleural

cavity

Pericardial

cavity within

the mediastinum

Ventral body

cavity

(thoracic and

abdomino-

pelvic

cavities)

Thoracic

cavity

(contains

heart and

lungs)

Vertebral

cavity

(contains

spinal

cord)

Diaphragm

Abdominal cavity

(contains digestive

viscera)

Pelvic cavity

(contains urinary

bladder, reproductive

organs, and rectum)

Lateral view

Anterior view

Abdomino-

pelvic

cavity

Dorsal body

cavity

Ventral body

cavity

Ventral Body Cavity

▪ • ― Heart Pericardium • ― Lungs Pleurae • ― Abdominopelvic cavity Peritoneum Serosa named for specific cavity and organs that they are associated with

Figure 1.10 Serous membrane relationships.

Outer balloon wall

(comparable to parietal serosa)

Air (comparable to serous cavity)

Inner balloon wall

(comparable to visceral serosa)

A fist thrust into a flaccid balloon demonstrates

the relationship between the parietal and visceral

serous membrane layers.

Heart

Parietal

pericardium

Pericardial

space with

serous fluid

Visceral

pericardium

The serosae associated with the heart.

Figure 1.11 The four abdominopelvic quadrants.

Right upper

quadrant

(RUQ)

Left upper

quadrant

(LUQ)

Right lower

quadrant

(RLQ)

Left lower

quadrant

(LLQ)

Figure 1.12 The nine abdominopelvic regions.

Liver

Right

hypochondriac

region

Epigastric

region

Left

hypochondriac

region

Gallbladder

Ascending colon

of large intestine

Small intestine

Cecum

Diaphragm

Spleen

Stomach

Transverse colon

of large intestine

Descending colon

of large intestine

Initial part of

sigmoid colon

Urinary bladder

Right

lumbar

region

Right iliac

(inguinal)

region

Umbilical

region

Left

lumbar

region

Left iliac

(inguinal)

region

Hypogastric

(pubic)

region

Appendix

Nine regions delineated by four planes

Anterior view of the nine regions showing the

Necessary Life Functions

▪ • Maintaining boundaries • Movement • Responsiveness • Digestion • Metabolism • Excretion • Reproduction • Growth Maintenance of life involves:

Figure 1.1 Levels of structural organization.

Atoms

Molecule

Organelle

Smooth muscle cell

Chemical level

Atoms combine to form

molecules.

Cellular level

Cells are made up of

molecules.

Smooth muscle tissue

Heart

Blood

vessels

Tissue level

Tissues consist of similar types

of cells.

Blood vessel (organ)

Smooth muscle tissue

Connective tissue

Epithelial

tissue

Organ level

Organs are made up of different

types of tissues.

Organ system level

Organ systems consist of different

organs that work together closely.

Organismal level

The human organism is made

up of many organ systems.

Slide 7

Cardiovascular

system

Anatomical Variation (aka, why using cadavers is so important in anatomy!)

Bio 201 A&P ASU DPC T. Penkrot

Integumentary System

▪ Forms the external body covering ▪ Composed of the skin, sweat glands, oil glands, hair, and nails ▪ Protects deep tissues from injury and synthesizes vitamin D

Bio 201 A&P ASU DPC T. Penkrot

Skeletal System

▪ Composed of bone, cartilage, and ligaments ▪ Protects and supports body organs ▪ Provides the framework for muscles** ▪ Site of blood cell formation ▪ Stores minerals

Muscular System

▪ Composed of muscles and tendons ▪ Allows manipulation of the environment, locomotion, and facial expression (communication) ▪ Maintains posture ▪ Produces heat

Bio 201 A&P ASU DPC T. Penkrot

Nervous System

▪ Composed of the brain, spinal column, and nerves ▪ Is the fast-acting control system of the body ▪ Responds to stimuli by activating muscles and glands

Bio 201 A&P ASU DPC T. Penkrot

Cardiovascular System

▪ Composed of the heart and blood vessels ▪ The heart pumps blood ▪ The blood vessels transport blood throughout the body

Bio 201 A&P ASU DPC T. Penkrot

Lymphatic System

▪ Composed of red bone marrow, thymus, spleen, lymph nodes, and lymphatic vessels ▪ Picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels and returns it to blood ▪ Disposes of debris in the lymphatic stream ▪ Houses white blood cells involved with immunity

Bio 201 A&P ASU DPC T. Penkrot

Respiratory System

▪ Composed of the nasal cavity, pharynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs ▪ Keeps blood supplied with oxygen and removes carbon dioxide

Digestive System

▪ Composed of the oral cavity, esophagus, stomach, pancreas, liver, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, and anus ▪ Breaks down food into absorbable units that enter the blood ▪ Eliminates indigestible foodstuffs as feces

Bio 201 A&P ASU DPC T. Penkrot

Urinary System

▪ Composed of kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra ▪ Eliminates nitrogenous wastes from the body ▪ Regulates water, electrolyte, and pH balance of the blood

Bio 201 A&P ASU DPC T. Penkrot

Male Reproductive System

▪ Composed of prostate gland, penis, testes, scrotum, and ductus deferens ▪ Main function is the production of offspring ▪ Testes produce sperm and male sex hormones ▪ Ducts and glands deliver sperm to the female reproductive tract

Bio 201 A&P ASU DPC T. Penkrot

Female Reproductive System

▪ Composed of mammary glands, ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, and vagina ▪ Main function is the production of offspring ▪ Ovaries produce eggs and female sex hormones ▪ Remaining structures serve as sites for fertilization and development of the fetus ▪ Mammary glands produce milk to nourish the newborn

Organ Systems Interrelationships

▪ Nothing in the body works in isolation!

Bio 201 A&P ASU DPC T. Penkrot

Survival Needs

• Nutrients • Oxygen • Water • Normal body temperature (“heat”) • Appropriate atmospheric pressure

→ GRADIENTS

Homeostasis

▪ Homeostasis – the body’s ability to detect change, activate mechanisms that oppose it, and thereby maintain relatively stable internal conditions ▪ Loss of homeostatic control causes illness or death

Feedback: How the Body Maintains Homeostasis

▪ Positive feedback works with the direction of change ▪ Negative feedback works against the direction of change ▪ Almost all systems in the body are negative feedback ▪ Positive feedback is much rarer in biological system, but there are a few notable examples… to stop)

Bio 201 A&P ASU DPC T. Penkrot

Negative Feedback, Set Point

▪ Room temperature does not stay at set point of 68 degrees -- it only averages 68 degrees

Room temperature ( °F)

Time

Furnace turned

off at 70°F

Set point 68°F

Furnace turned

on at 66°F

Bio 201 A&P ASU DPC T. Penkrot

Control of Blood Pressure

Blood drains from

upper body, creating homeostatic imbalance

Baroreceptors above

heart respond to drop

in blood pressure

Baroreceptors send signals

to cardiac center of brainstem

Blood pressure rises

to normal; homeostasis

is restored

Person rises

from bed

Cardiac center

accelerates heartbeat

Bio 201 A&P ASU DPC T. Penkrot

Positive Feedback Loops

▪ • leads to greater change in the same direction • feedback loop is repeated – change produces more change Self-amplifying cycle ▪ • occurs with childbirth, blood clotting, protein digestion, fever, and generation of nerve signals Normal way of producing rapid and/ or large changes ▪ • Can spiral out of controlOften associated with dysfunction, disease, or harm

Bio 201 A&P ASU DPC T. Penkrot

Example: Harmful Positive Feedback Loop

▪ • metabolic rate increases • body produces heat even faster • body temperature continues to rise • further increasing metabolic rate Fever > 104 degrees F ▪ Cycle continues to reinforce itself ▪ Becomes fatal at 113 degrees F

Bio 201 A&P ASU DPC T. Penkrot

Homeostatic Imbalance

▪ • Increases risk of disease • ― Control systems become less efficient Contributes to changes associated with aging • ― E.g., Heart failure If negative feedback mechanisms become overwhelmed, destructive positive feedback mechanisms may take over