Western Civilization

I. Military Revolution Gunpowder and knights Military Organization - infantry, standing armies; salvo; light cannon; professional army II. An Age of Kings Europe in a period of transition to centralized monarchy. Monarch’s greatest asset was money - led to policies which would generate wealth and consolidate power in the monarch. A. Spain -First came to exist as a political entity in 1469 when Ferdinand of Aragon married Isabella, future Queen of Castile, Spain united Funded the empire in the 16th century with gold and silver from the New World colonies In 1492, the forces of Ferdinand and Isabella defeated Granada, the last Muslim realm on the Iberian Peninsula; they expelled all Jews unwilling to convert to Christianity; and dispatched Columbus in search of a western route to Asia -Phillip II emphasized the Catholic faith; embarked on program to reconvert the protestants throughout Europe; sent the Spanish Armada in 1588 against England but was defeated. “Protestant Wind” (divine intervention) was said to be the cause of the defeat. B. France -After 1624 Cardinal Richelieu used the powerful bureaucracy to reassert royal power and set France on the road to absolute monarchy -Hundred Years’ War increased the power of the central French monarchy because it allowed the monarch to tax the nobility and maintain a standing army -Louis XIV brought France to the height of absolutism with relatively little opposition because he did not squeeze the wealth of the Church or nobility; built an elaborate court which he made the center of society C. England -Hundred Years’ War increased the power of Parliament, giving it the power to raise taxes -Resulted in a civil war known as the War of the Roses leading to the Tudor Dynasty; Henry VII came to the throne; his heir was Henry VIII -Elizabeth I was a very able ruler; strong, popular, and well-advised. Defeated the Spanish Armada and put down a Catholic plot. -James I was Elizabeth’s successor; Scottish and not well-liked; not very successful -Charles I was James’ successor; Problems with Parliament from the beginning- ended Parliament and ruled without them for 11 years:

He attempted to collect taxes without their approval
He tried to stamp out Puritanism in England
He attempted to arrest Parliamentary leaders Problems with Scotland (Calvinists) forced him to recall Parliament; continued problems led to Civil War and the death of Charles I -England under Cromwell Commonwealth -Restoration of Monarchy - Charles II -Problems with rule of James II; led to Glorious Revolution of 1688 where William of Orange, leader of the Dutch Provinces is offered the throne of England. William was married to Mary (heir to the throne of England); secured the Dutch’s need for support against Louis XIV of France. THE SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION I. Origins of the Scientific Revolution Aristotle, Ptolemy, Galen Magic: Alchemy, Astrology, Atomism New Technology: telescope, thermometer, barometer, microscope II. First Breakthroughs -Copernicus initiated studies that led to his revolutionary theories because there was a need to reform the Christian calendar. He was troubled by the Ptolemaic model of the universe because its mathematics were so complex. In his book, On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres, Copernicus set for the heliocentric model of the solar system. -Vesalius wrote The Structure of the Human Body where he published important advances that disproved the work of Galen. -Kepler discovered the three laws of planetary motion, and that planetary orbits are elliptical. -Galileo combined mathematics, technical observation and logic to reveal major new discoveries. Said that the universe was not perfect or unchanging, a position that created problems for him with the Inquisition and resulted in his house arrest. III. Wider Influence of Scientific Thought -Francis Bacon in his book New Atlantis expressed the most interest in using science to advance trade, industry, and the condition in which human beings live. -Rene Descartes in his book Discourse on Method developed the philosophical concept that separated matter from spirit and mind from nature, known as the “essential dichotomy.” -Isaac Newton in his book Principia, wrote about his discoveries on the laws of motion and his theory of universal gravitation. He developed the basics of calculus and physics. -In Catholic countries during the 17th and much of the 18th centuries the teaching of Copernicus and Newton was prohibited. IV. Reformation -Martin Luther’s “95 Theses” nailed to the door in Wittenberg, protest against corrupt Church practices, especially the sale of indulgences -Due to printing press and new ways of thinking stimulated by the scientific revolution, Luther’s ideas spread quickly, forcing a confrontation with the pope. -Luther’s protest was pushed to the point of a break with the pope; the German princes sided with Luther -The English Reformation followed, prompted by problems Henry VIII had with the pope -Henry VIII was anti-Reformation initially and wrote “In Defense of the Seven Sacraments” resulting in his being named “Defender of the Faith” by the pope; however, his need for a divorce forced his break with Rome THE AGE OF ENLIGHTENMENT I. Continuing Impact of Science and the Rise of Secularism -The Scientific Revolution brought about a confidence in reason and a skeptical attitude toward accepted dogmas; the term “freethinking” was applied to individuals, like Voltaire, in the 18th century who readily criticized church dogmas. -Deism was the dominant religious philosophy of the Enlightenment. -Enlightenment Europe’s “civil society” saw a mixing of aristocrats with other social classes, membership based on common interests and curiosity rather than religious, kin, or occupational affiliation, and a membership which had some surplus wealth. II. The Philosophes -The philosophes were leaders of Enlightenment thought who supported tolerance, rationality, and freedom. -Radical and moderate philosophes were united by their endorsement of the new science, a critical attitude of the clergy, but a belief in religious tolerance. -The salon, which was usually organized by women, was a small, elite social gathering that promoted culture, gentility, and the ideas of the Enlightenment. They represented a new area of social life outside the family. -Diderot and the Encyclopedia: Denis Diderot created a 29-volume encyclopedia which is considered to be the most important book of the Enlightenment. It stressed social utility and secularism and was banned by French authorities. -Thomas Hobbes applied the new Enlightenment thinking to politics when he challenged the Divine Right theory. The philosophes approved of his theory because of his refusal to bring God into his political theories. -John Locke applied his belief in the scientific method to explain all human understanding. In his work Essay Concerning Human Understanding, Locke advanced his idea of “tabula rasa” which states that no ideas are innate. He also applied his approach to understanding to the field of politics in his work Second Treatise of Civil Government, where he advanced the expanded-on Thomas Hobbes social contract theory. -Rousseau further advanced the political ideas of Hobbes and Locke in his book The Social Contract. These ideas were all combined with the writings of Montesquieu to form the basis of the government of the United States. -Adam Smith applied the Enlightenment ideas to the field of economics in his book The Wealth of Nations. His theory was based on “laissez-faire” which advocated minimizing government interference in the economy. III. 18th Century Culture -High culture : travel, publishing (novel, poetry, academic publications) and freemasonry, symphony -Popular culture: folk tales and songs, public houses, and blood sports THE FRENCH REVOLUTION I. Origins

Reasons go beyond dissatisfaction with an unjust government or Enlightenment ideals
Fiscal crisis: Revolution was precipitated by the impending bankruptcy of the French government in the 1780s brought on by debt remaining from earlier wars, tax evasion by and tax exemptions for the nobility, the clergy, (1st and 2nd Estates) and the wealthy bourgeoisie, and an inefficient tax collection system. The bulk of the tax burden fell on the Third Estate which included the bourgeoisie, the peasants, the urban laborers. II. The Estates General and the Constituent Assembly
In May 1789, the king summoned the old representative body of France into session – the Estates General – hoping to bring reform and taxation to solve the fiscal crisis.
The Third Estate took the initiative and forced the king to allow all 3 estates to sit together as a National Assembly with the power to give France a constitution.
The king’s action provoked open insurrection symbolized by the fall of the Bastille; and in the countryside there was a rural uprising in reaction to rumors that aristocrats were organizing attacks on peasants known as the Great Fear.
The National Assembly was able to meet once more and drew up the Declaration of the Rights of Man referred to as the “death warrant of the Old Regime” because it provided the basis for the complete restructuring of France III. The Second Revolution (1792 – 1794)
The new constitution resulted in a completely new National Convention that was younger and more radical
The convention became divided between the radical Jacobins (led by Robespierre and the more moderate Girondists.
The Jacobins gained control of the government and established a dictatorship and the Reign of Terror, where 27,000 were executed. IV. The Thermidorian Reaction (1794 – 1796)
The moderate middle class that had led the first phase of the Revolution overthrew Robespierre and assumed power. The terror was dismantled upper-class life, with a flaunting of pleasure and luxury, returned. V. The Directory (1796 – 1799)
The new middle-class republic had a five-man executive called the Directory.
This new regime was unstable, suffering numerous coups.
Under the Directory, France continued to support wars of liberation throughout Europe. VI. Results of the Revolution
Nationalism became an important political force.
The aristocracy was weakened.
A more efficient, rational state was created. NAPOLEONIC ERA I. Rise of Napoleon
Prior to the French Revolutionary wars Napoleon was an artillery officer in the French Army.
The changes brought about by the Revolution allowed Napoleon to rise to power within the military and within the government.
The Directory was a very weak government and many groups sought to overthrow them; Napoleon acquired power by joining with conspirators against the Directory. II. Napoleonic Imperium
Napoleon became a dictator at home and an imperial conqueror of the Continent.
Napoleon showed concern for binding the classes of French people together, but he also acted against many French liberties – he illustrated an understanding of enlightened despotism.
In the Concordat of 1801, Napoleon settled affairs between France and the Catholic Church which allowed him to maintain major powers over the Church and turn the primary schools and the pulpit into instruments of social control.
In the Code of Napoleon, he established equality of all adult men before the law, freedom of religion, and protection of property rights.
Napoleon’s economic programs led to the building or repair of many roads, canal, and bridges, establishing tariffs and loans to aid industry and establishing the Bank of France. III. Napoleonic Hegemony
Napoleon was successful against many European nations, allowing him to build a large French Empire.
Napoleon placed his relatives as monarchs over many conquered territories including Westphalia, Holland, and Spain.
Napoleon further legitimized his rule by marrying into the house of Hapsburg.
Napoleon declared economic war on Britain, which referred to as a “nation of shopkeepers” with the Continental System. This was designed to prevent any commerce between Britain and the Continent, but it was ultimately unsuccessful. IV. Resistance to Napoleon
Napoleon overextended himself when he tried to deal with Spain, Russia, and Britain by force.
Napoleon’s plan to take direct control of Spain through his brother Joseph resulted in rebellions.
Napoleon suffered defeat in Russia, mainly from the Russian winter and desertions. Russia then allied with Prussia, and soon Austria and Britain joined the coalition and Napoleon suffered defeat in 1814. He was forced to surrender, abdicate, and become an exile on the island of Elba. V. The Hundred Days
While the Congress of Vienna was attempting to restore international and domestic stability in Europe, Napoleon escaped from Elba and returned to France in 1815. He quickly reacquired power.
Napoleon was finally defeated at Waterloo on June 18, 1815 and exiled to St. Helena.
As a result, France was reduced to her 1789 borders, required to pay indemnity, and Louis XVIII was returned to power, however, even with the restoration of a monarchy, Napoleon’s deep impact on European history made it impossible to restore the Old Regime of noble and clerical privilege. THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION I. Characteristics of an Industrial Economy
The Industrial Revolution was initiated in Great Britain in the late 18th century.
It was essentially a revolution in technology.
Great Britain best satisfied the preconditions of industrialization: a large population; an excellent balance of resources; a good system of rivers, canals, roads, and ports for transportation; a uniform system of tariffs, laws, and standards; a skilled population; and a responsive pool of entrepreneurs and propertied groups with strong political influence. Probably most important was the demand created by a growing population at home and by colonies abroad, and the willingness of the British to utilize natural and human resources in response.
Basically, the Industrial Revolution was characterized by laborers when they were at work (England).
The first industry to industrialize was the textile industry.
France was slow to industrialize because it faced greater structural obstacles than England, and French investors were reluctant to put their capital into ventures because of the political instability in France. II. New Shape of Industry
Coal and iron were necessary for the new industry, and Britain had an abundant supply of both.
Steam power was introduced in the early 1700s, but it was not used extensively until after the 1760s because it was too expensive. In 1782, James Watt invited a practical steam engine, which gave people a reliable, mobile source of power.
The textile industry was further advanced with new inventions for spinning and weaving (flying shuttle, power loom, spinning jenny, water frame, and the cotton gin). III. Agriculture
Improvements in agriculture enabled the countryside to supply industrial towns with food, labor, capital, and markets.
Innovative landlord – among them Jethro Tull, Charles Townshend, and Thomas Coke – improved methods of fertilization, crop rotation, seeding, and breeding.
These innovations required elimination of the traditional open-field system, which was achieved through the enclosure acts of the 18th and 19th centuries.
These new ways of using land and new crops, etc., were known as the “Green Revolution.” IV. The Structure of Society
Cities grew in both number and size because of the Industrial Revolution.
Sever strains were placed on housing and on such services as water supply, sanitation, and the maintenance of public order.
Social classes emerged based on occupational status, including the working class and the middle class.
As these cities developed, the rich as well as the poor suffered from the overcrowding and health issues that occurred as a result of the Industrial Revolution.
Industrial workers began marrying earlier and having more children in order to have more family members working in factories and bringing in money, which increased the population of the cities and the negative impact of industry.
Between 1780-1830 was a period of extreme hardship for worker because of the impact of industrialization (low pay, unsafe working and living conditions, etc.) THOUGHT, CULTURE, & NATIONALISM ;19th CENTURY I. Conservative Thought -Conservatism became a main ideology at the beginning of the 19th century; it rejected changes and emphasized continuity, hierarchical order, Christianity, and political power. -Conservatives generally: were critical of Enlightenment principles that released instincts that religion had once controlled, were suspicious of the theory of natural rights, and were fearful of utopian visions and those who would implement them by force. II. Conservative Order -The Congress of Vienna was dominated by 5 major powers: Austria, Great Britain, Russia, France, and Prussia. Each victor gained territories and France was reduced to 1792 borders and surrounded by states capable of resisting future aggression. -Holland gained the southern Netherlands, Russia gained Finland, and Austria received Lombardy and Venetia. -the Congress of Vienna restructure Europe based on conservative principles, and each individual European government restructured itself domestically along conservative lines. III. Romanticism and Conservatism -Romanticism, with its emphasis on individual feeling, direct experience, the power of nature, and beauty, became associated with conservatism. -The central message of the romantics was the individual imagination was primary in artistic creation - it was a reaction against Enlightenment rationalism. -Romantics had a respect for and interest in each specific historical period but had a particular reverence for the Middle Ages. -Romantics were particularly disturbed by the conditions in industrialized cities, referring to them as “dark, satanic mills.” IV. Theories of Change -Liberalism was an optimistic international movement based on liberal political, economic, and social ideas. The model for liberalism was England. Liberals tended to believe that pursuit of self-interest was a positive force in society. Liberals supported constitutions, freedom of the press and of assembly, the jury system, separation of church and state, public education, administrative reform, but only limited voting and economic rights. -Economic Liberalism: founded by Adam Smith in the 18th century and expanded by David Ricardo in the 19th century who set for the ideas of supply and demand; argued that high wages would encourage workers to have more children, which in turn would continue the cycle of poverty. -Utilitarianism: founded by Jeremy Bentham; argued that policies should provide the greatest good for the greatest number. -John Stuart Mill: expanded the ideas of liberalism to take more positive account of social justice; combined a passionate regard for the individual and freedom with support of collective action by workers, private groups, and public institutions for solving social problems. V. Liberal Revolutions of 1830 -Revolutions of 1830: In 1830 a revolution ended the regime of Charles X in France and brought to power a moderate liberal monarchy. Revolts spread to other parts of Europe, but success was limited. -Liberal politics in Britain: After the Congress of Vienna, Britain pursued relatively conservative policies, but agitation against them forced Parliament toward more liberal policies. -The Reform Act of 1832: Parliament broadened suffrage rights for the middle class and reformed rotten boroughs. This was followed by other reforms such as abolition of slavery and a poor law.