Indigenous Workers, Colonialism, and the Canadian Labor Movement
Terminology and the Evolution of Language
Definitions and usage of terminology regarding Indigenous populations have shifted significantly over time.
Historically, the terms "native population," "native Canadians," "Aboriginals," and "indigenous" have all been used in academic literature and journalism.
In the past, the term "aboriginal" was the consensus in Canadian academic circles; however, in contemporary usage, this term is almost exclusively used to refer to the Aboriginal population in Australia.
In the current Canadian context, "indigenous" is recognized as the most appropriate and accepted terminology.
Research and readings from different historical periods may use terms that were considered correct at that time but are now outdated.
Colonialism as an Ongoing Project
Indigenous work and workers must be understood within the context of ongoing colonialism.
Canada is categorized as a colonial project, specifically through the framework of "settler colonialism."
Colonialism is often misinterpreted as merely the original act of dispossession or the historical expansion of capitalism from Europe to North America.
Historical dispossession occurred when white settlers established their own institutions and state, leading to the systemic subordination of Indigenous populations.
Subordination is not a finished historical event; it continues today through interactions with the Canadian state and private capital.
Settlement and dispossession curtailed Indigenous participation in traditional economies while colonial policies simultaneously constrained equal participation in the emerging market economy.
Defining Colonialism: Classic vs. Contemporary Perspectives
Colonialism is defined as a foundation of "Project Canada," initiated by imperialism.
It involves the physical occupation of land and the appropriation of:
Political authority
Cultural self-determination
Economic capacity
Strategic location
Colonialism constitutes a profoundly exploitative relationship where one party benefits at the expense of another.
Classic International Legal Formulation: Traditionally, the end of colonialism (self-determination) was defined by the moment the colonizer "goes home." This implies the colonizing and colonized people remain distinct and separable.
Example: British colonial rule in India ended when the British withdrew and Indians replaced them in bureaucratic and political institutions.
Contemporary Canadian Context: The classic definition is not useful in Canada because there is no "going home" for the colonizing population. In this framework, colonialism is viewed as having no definitive end date.
Decolonization in Settler Societies: Since both Indigenous and settler populations permanently reside in the same territory, decolonization does not mean physical separation. Instead, it involves:
Negotiated arrangements for new relationships.
Inclusion of colonized people in institutions of power.
Designing institutions to reflect the priorities and cultural assumptions of the colonized as well as the colonizer.
Historical Indigenous Wage Labor
Colonial activity was predominantly motivated by the search for wealth by mercantile and capitalist investors and their political sponsors.
In the mid-to-late nineteenth century ( century), Indigenous people formed the majority of the paid labor force in British Columbia and were considered essential to the province's capitalist development.
Regional Examples of Participation:
Nova Scotia: Mi'kmaq men and women traveled to Maine to work for wages.
Western Canada: Large numbers of Indigenous people worked for wages during harvest time.
Northern Manitoba: Indigenous men and women worked in resource-based industries, commercial fishing, sawmills, railways, power line construction, and as domestic labor in hospitals.
Southern Manitoba: Indigenous people worked as domestics on farms, in hospitals, and in lumber and transport sectors.
Displacement by Settlers: As non-Indigenous settlers arrived, racism typically pushed Indigenous people out of the paid labor force.
In Northern Manitoba, Once the railway allowed white settler workers to arrive, Indigenous workers were systematically replaced and displaced.
The Colonial State and Systemic Barriers
The Pass System: This was a colonial policy that placed severe restrictions on movement. Indigenous people were required to obtain a physical pass from a colonial state official known as an "Indian agent" to leave their reserve.
Consequences of the Pass System: The system resulted in high rates of arrest, incarceration, and exclusion from paid employment.
Cultural Genocide: The residential school system and the pass system were forms of cultural genocide justified by false ideologies of European superiority.
These racist beliefs provided the justification for prioritizing non-Indigenous settlers for employment over Indigenous wage workers.
Demographics and Modern Employment Statistics
Indigenous employment and work conditions in Canada remain inferior to those of non-equity seeking workers.
Age Demographics: The working-age Indigenous population is younger than the non-Indigenous population.
of the working-age Indigenous population is aged to , compared to of non-Indigenous peoples.
The share of Indigenous people aged and over is only , compared to for non-Indigenous workers.
Core Working Age ( to ): Indigenous people in this core age group are among the most likely to be unemployed.
Unemployment and Income:
The unemployment rate for all Indigenous people is approximately , which is significantly higher than the national average.
Indigenous employment has not entirely recovered from the economic crisis.
Indigenous people receive an average hourly wage that is lower than that of non-Indigenous people.
Low-Income Cut-Off (LICO): Canada does not use the term "poverty line" (an American term); instead, it uses the Low-Income Cut-Off.
Approximately of Indigenous people live below the LICO.
Only of the non-Indigenous population lives below the LICO.
Labor Market Segregation and Unionization
Indigenous workers are underrepresented in professional and managerial occupations, natural and applied sciences, and clerical work.
They are overrepresented in primary industries, sales, and service sectors.
Industrial Representation ( Data):
Indigenous workers: Public administration, construction, forestry, fishing, mining, oil and gas, health care, and social assistance.
Non-Indigenous workers: Professional, scientific, and technical services, finance, insurance, real estate, manufacturing, and retail.
Union Coverage: Statistically, Indigenous workers are slightly more likely to be covered by a union than non-Indigenous workers.
Indigenous workers:
Non-Indigenous workers:
This overrepresentation is largely due to the high concentration of Indigenous workers in the federal public service ( of the Indigenous workforce works in public administration, education, health care, and social services, compared to of the non-Indigenous workforce).
Cultural Racism and the Staples Economy
Structural and Cultural Racism: Positioning traditional Indigenous norms as incompatible with employment or conflating poverty with culture.
The Firefighter Example: A Public Service Alliance of Canada (PSAC) official noted that in the North, Indigenous firefighters were denied full-time positions and given the most difficult physical work and appalling living conditions under the racist assumption that because they "came from the bush," such conditions were acceptable.
Staples Economy: A theory describing the Canadian economy as centered on the extraction of natural resources (staples) moved from a "periphery" to an economic "center."
Early staples: Beaver fur (Canada as periphery to European metropole), wheat, lumber, and cod.
Indigenous people were historically used to extract these staples but were excluded from the benefits of the capitalist economy that followed.
Impact Benefit Agreements (IBAs)
IBAs are private, enforceable legal contracts between an Indigenous community and a company (usually mining) extracting resources near that community.
IBA Components:
Preferential hiring and targets.
Specialized training and apprenticeships.
Cultural training for non-Indigenous managers.
Workplace flexibility for traditional activities (e.g., hunting).
Use of Indigenous language and provision of Indigenous food at work sites.
Critiques of IBAs:
Non-Opposition Clauses: Many IBAs prohibit Indigenous groups from protesting or opposing the development.
Privacy: Companies prefer private agreements over public ones to avoid oversight.
Power Imbalance: Agreements are often negotiated between international conglomerates and single Indigenous groups with vastly different resources.
Inadequacy: They often fail to address environmental degradation, loss of traditional land use, and social issues like rising drug and alcohol use.
Enforcement: As private contracts, the only way to enforce them is through a lawsuit for breach of contract; there is no federal or provincial regulatory framework for monitoring.
Unions and Indigenous Engagement: PSAC and CUPE
Unions have only recently turned their attention to Indigenous concerns as part of a "social unionism" agenda.
Public Sector Unions: These unions have been leaders in Indigenous engagement because they represent jurisdictions where Indigenous people are overrepresented.
Public Service Alliance of Canada (PSAC):
Historically represents federal workers, including those on reserves and in territories.
Convention: Introduced land acknowledgments (led by elders, not settlers) and established a representative body for Indigenous members.
Canadian Union of Public Employees (CUPE):
Formed an informal Indigenous council, followed by a designated seat on the national executive and a formal National Indigenous Council in .
In , they hired dedicated Indigenous staff.
CUPE Local (Winnipeg): Represents City of Winnipeg workers. It likely has the highest percentage of Indigenous membership of any union local in Canada.
Tensions in Labor Relations:
Conflict exists between federal/provincial labor laws (colonial state framework) and Indigenous rights to self-determination.
The Assembly of First Nations has asserted that First Nations have the right to conduct labor relations without state interference.
Some Indigenous communities view unions as "settler institutions" attempting to assimilate them into a colonial framework.
Decolonizing the Labor Movement
Barriers to Participation: The bureaucratic, majoritarian "majority rules" decision-making process of unions often conflicts with Indigenous governance modes and can disadvantage Indigenous minorities.
Organizing Strategies:
Traditional "fly-in" organizing (handing out cards) is often seen as ineffective and disrespectful.
Respectful organizing involves translating materials into Indigenous languages and incorporating practices like smudging and elder participation.
Consensus-Based Organizing: PSAC organizers have sometimes used a model where the organizer presents, then leaves the room for workers to decide by consensus whether to unionize.
Collective Agreement Successes: Successes include clauses for hunting/fishing leaves, broader definitions of family, and paid holidays for Indigenous Day or Nunavut Day.
Work in Progress: Despite advancements, many Indigenous workers feel disconnected from their unions. In CUPE Local , an employer-led Indigenous employees group is often better known and more active than the union's own Indigenous council.