AP Government Review Flashcards

Unit 1: Foundational Documents and Principles

Based on Enlightenment thoughts.
Declaration of Independence:
- Unalienable rights (natural rights).
- People have the right to replace government (social contract).
- Popular sovereignty (people have rights).
Constitution: Blueprint for republicanism.
Models of Democracy:
- Participatory: Direct involvement of people.
- Pluralist: Interest groups compete to influence policy.
- Elite: Influence by a small group of powerful individuals.
Brutus 1 and Federalist 10:
- Brutus 1: Feared federal government would become too powerful.
- Federalist 10: Many factions prevent government tyranny.
Federalists vs. Anti-Federalists:
- Federalist Papers: Argued for a strong central government.
- Federalist 10 (James Madison): Addressed factions; strong government to mitigate effects.
- Anti-Federalists: Favored strong state power, opposed monarchy.
- Necessary and Proper Clause.
Articles of Confederation (AoC) Failure:
- Federal power too weak, state power too great.
- First Constitution, with many weaknesses.
- No executive or judicial branches.
- No power to tax.
- Unanimous decision needed for laws.
- Congress lacked power to raise/maintain an army.
- Shay’s Rebellion contributed to the creation of the Constitution.
US Constitution Compromises:
- The Great Compromise (Connecticut Compromise):
  - Representation in Congress.
  - Bicameral legislature (two houses).
- Electoral College Compromise:
  - President elected by representatives, not directly by the people.
- 3/5ths Compromise:
  - $3/5$ of the enslaved population counted for representation.
  - $3/4$ needed to comply to ratify something
Federalist 51:
- Separation of powers.
- Three branches operate independently with checks and balances.
- Legislative makes laws, Executive enforces laws, Judicial determines constitutionality.
Federalism:
- System of government based on federalism and power-sharing affected by societal needs.
- Exclusive, reserved, and concurrent powers.
- Exclusive powers: For the federal government.
- Reserved powers: For the states.
- Concurrent powers: Shared powers.
- Fiscal federalism: Shared financial powers (grants).
- Block grants.
- Mandates.
Balance of Power:
- Balance between states and federal government changes over time.
- 10th and 14th Amendments.
- Commerce Clause, Necessary and Proper Clause (Elastic Clause).
- McCulloch v. Maryland:
  - Supremacy Clause (federal law trumps state law).
- US v. Lopez:
  - Congress has limits under the Commerce Clause.

Unit 2: Congress, the Presidency, and the Judiciary

Congress:
- Main work is to make laws, Article 1 powers.
- Implied and explicit powers.
- Structure: Bicameral.
  - House of Representatives: 435 members, based on population.
  - Senate: 100 members, based on states.
- Leadership: Speaker of the House, Majority/Minority Whips.
- Senate Leadership: Vice President as President of the Senate (less powerful), President Pro Tempore.
- Committee System: Standing, Joint, Select, Conference.
  - Standing: Permanent committees.
  - Joint: Both House and Senate members.
  - Select: Temporary, with members from both houses.
  - Conference: Resolve bill differences (pork barrel spending, earmarks).
- Voting (logrolling).
- Budget: Mandatory (Social Security, Medicare) and Discretionary spending.
Efficiency of Congress:
- Affected by ideological divisions, differing conceptions of representation, and redistricting/gerrymandering.
- Trustee model (vote based on best judgment).
- Redistricting: Remaking districts every 10 years.
- Court Cases:
  - Baker v. Carr:
    - One person, one vote.
    - Minority population had too much power, 1 person 1 vote principle made (economic and social growth was not noted by Tennessee)
  - Shaw v. Reno:
    - Gerrymandering that only benefits one group is unconstitutional.
The Presidency:
- No law-making power, but uses formal and informal powers to influence policy.
- Article 2 powers.
- Formal and Informal powers.
- Conflicts with other branches; checks on presidential power.
- Congress checks judge appointments.
- Presidential power has grown (executive orders, amendments, policies).
- Uses communication technologies (social media, bully pulpit).
The Supreme Court:
- Checks other branches through judicial review.
- Federalist 78: Lifetime appointments, judicial review.
- Marbury v. Madison established judicial review.
- Appointed by President, confirmed by Congress.
- Lifetime appointment.
- Precedents, Stare Decisis.
- Ideology affects decisions.
- Examples: Roe v. Wade, Dobbs v. Jackson.
- Judical activism: the thoughts of affects of decisions on society (not all of this term)
- Judicial restraint: go over the vocab
The Federal Bureaucracy:
- Carries out responsibilities under the executive branch.
- Writes and enforces regulations, issues fines.
- Iron Triangle.
- Delegated discretionary authority for rule-making and implementation.
- Makes the vague laws specific
- 7 executive agencies
- Congressional oversight (power of the purse).

Unit 3: Civil Liberties and Civil Rights

The Bill of Rights:
- Protects individual liberties.
- Originally protected citizens from the federal government, later applied to states.
- Liberties are not absolute.
First Amendment:
- Freedom of religion (balancing majoritarian practices and free exercise).
  - Engel v. Vitale
  - Wisconsin v. Yoder
- Freedom of speech (not absolute, high bar for restriction).
  - Tinker v. Des Moines
- Freedom of the press.
  - New York Times v. US
  - Prior restraint.
Second Amendment:
- Individual's right to own a gun.
  - District of Columbia v. Heller (2008)
Balancing Individual Liberty and Public Order:
- Rights are not absolute; balancing act.
Selective Incorporation:
- Applies Bill of Rights to states through the 14th Amendment Due Process Clause.
  - 1st, 4th, 5th, 6th Amendments.
  - McDonald v. Chicago
Court Rulings:
- Restrict individual liberty or uphold it.
- Miranda Rights.
  - Gideon v. Wainwright
- Right to Privacy (implied).
Social Movements:
- Inspired and supported by Constitutional provisions.
- Civil Liberties vs. Civil Rights.
- Equal Protection Clause (14th Amendment).
- MLK, Letter from Birmingham Jail.
- Women's Rights Movement.
Civil Rights Restrictions and Protections:
- Restriction of minority groups' civil rights vs. protection.
- Engel v vitale
  - An optional prayer was being held during school and some families disliked that because it “forced” their kids to pray Ruled unconstitutional
  - Involves 14th amendment and establishment clause Engel won
- Wisconsin v Yoder
  - Three Amish families removed their kids from school after they graduated 8th grade because of their beliefs Wisconsin made a law that kids 16 and younger can not quit school
  - Ruled unconstitutional Involves the 1st amendment (freedom of religion) and the Establishment clause Yoder won
- Tinker v Des Moines
  - Children wore black armbands in support of the Christmas truce. America was a mess bc of the Vietnam war and with violence and protests so this was not a light issue. The school made a policy that any student wearing a protest armband would be suspended until they take it off.
  - Was declared unconstitutional 1st amendment (freedom of speech) Tinker won
- Schenck v US
  - Schenck wrote a pamphlet and passed it out to young Americans about the World War One draft and how it was just intimidation and took their rights (13th amendment) and distributed thousands of these. Was arrested and sent to trial.
  - Ruled constitutional (did no agree with Schenck) Ruled that his pamphlets were harmful and told people to avoid the draft US won
- New York Times v US
  - During the Vietnam conflict (like an undeclared war) people didn’t like this. Congress didn’t declare war but thousands of men were dying for it. President Nixon sugar coated it and made secret things about the war and kept it from the people. Someone who worked on the report leaked the information. This confirmed to citizens that the govt. was lying to them after newspapers started talking abt it. Nixon wanted newspaper to cease the newspapers to protect govt information (prior restraint)
  - Ruled unconstitutional This was based on first amendment (freedom of the press) New York Times won
- McDonald v Chicago
  - This fact has to do with another case heller v District of Columbia but since that was a federal case they had to move that ruling down to the states in this case using selective incorporation. McDonald owned many rifles and shotguns legally as a hunter but argued he could not use those guns for protection. Wanted a hand gun but Chicago laws for hand guns were too strict to get one.
  - Declared unconstitutional Involves 2nd amendment (the right to bear arms) and the 14th amendment McDonald won.
- Gideon v wainwright
  - Gideon broke into a pool hall, smashed a cigarette machine and stole all the coins in it and cash from the register; he was later arrested. Since he was poor he was supposed to get an appointed lawyer but in Florida you only get an appointed lawyer in capital cases. He acted as his own lawyer and was convicted. Involves the 6th amendment (right to have assistance of counsel for his defense) and 14th amendment.
  - Ruled unconstitutional Gideon won
- Brown v board of education
  - Result of Jim Crow laws many schools in the south had different schools for white children and black children. Racial segregation was allowed and constitutional if the separate facilities were equal (separate but equal). Black family tried to get their daughter into a white school that was closer to their house but were denied admission and forced to send their kid to a way farther black school. Separate facilities allowed inferiority in children’s heads. Involves 14th amendment
  - Ruled unconstitutional Brown won
- 14th amendment: equal protection Selective incorporation: how the court applies the liberties and protections of the bill of rights to state governments
  Strict scrutiny: Strict scrutiny is the highest standard of judicial review used by courts to determine the constitutionality of government actions or laws that infringe on fundamental rights or involve suspect classifications, requiring the government to prove a compelling interest and narrow tailoring

Unit 4: Political Ideologies and Voting Behavior

Political socialization:
Conservative and Liberal:
Cases:
Americans' relationship to core American beliefs affects views on government roles.
Five things (unspecified).
Political ideology influences (Republican, Democrat, Conservative, Liberal).
Political Socialization: Factors affecting individual voting (generational effect, lifecycle, etc.).
Interest groups work for specific interests or goals.
Cultural factors influence political attitudes and socialization.
Public opinion is measured through scientific polling, influencing policies and institutions.
Opinion polls, benchmark polls, tracking polls, entrance polls, exit polls.
The margin thingy (+- $3$ %).
A trend is a discernible relationship between scientific polling and elections and policy debates.
Reliability of polling data.
Political ideology is the basis for political decision-making.
Public policy reflects attitudes of those participating in the political process.

Unit 5: Political Participation and Voting

The Constitution protects voting rights and has expanded eligibility over time.
- 15th, 17th, 19th, 23rd, 24th Amendments.
- Rational choice voting, retrospective voting, prospective voting, straight ticket voting.
Several factors determine voter turnout.
- Open and closed primaries.
- Party realignment (term).
- Campaign finance (hard and soft money).
- Changes in communication.
The U.S. operates as a two-party system, making it difficult for third and independent parties to win.
- Winner-take-all system.
- Third parties lack money and trust.
Interest groups influence policy-making.
- Interest groups' goal is to affect policy-making, Iron Triangle.
- The level of influence depends on factors, AKA FUNDING.
- The free-rider problem occurs.
The president is elected through a series of steps via the Electoral College.
- Primaries.
- General election.
- Incumbent advantage.
Congressional elections have less participation than presidential elections.
Running a campaign for office is exceedingly complicated.
Money is at the heart of political campaigns.
Laws govern financial contributions.
Buckley v. Valeo:
- Congress wanted to restrict financial contributions to candidates restricted how much money can be spent on a candidate. FEC 1971 was there to enforce it. But Congress was overturned and now we can donate to candidates because it violated free speech
Citizens United:
- Plot: A company, Citizens United made a film about Hillary Clinton. The company wanted to advertise right before elections but was denied
- Holding: the court established through a 5-4 win that campaign finance is protected by the First Amendment free speech.
- Importance: this caused many important factors like: -Super PACS: basically unlimited money 💰 for candidates (but they can’t be in contact with the candidate) - Got rid of many restrictions
The Media is a linkage institution, also known as a watchdog agency, which holds the government responsible to the citizens.
MEDIA CONGLOMERATION: okay so basically less companies own media companies meaning more influence ig. Um and then basically it caused certain media companies to be one sided on political views 󰤅 Larger media companies own smaller companies. same thing 🙄🙄
Look at your notes guys (I refuse)
Media has changed

Constitutional Principles and Landmark Cases

COMMITTEE THAT CAN ONLY BE FOUND IN THE HOUSE OF REPS
- RULES COMMITTEE
entitlements = $2/3$ of spending mandatory spending Marbury v Madison- Judicial review established
- (can be connected to almost anything in Frq 4)
McCulloch v Maryland
- Congress can use the commerce clause to do nearly anything
US v Lopez
- Guns in school zones, Commerce clause cant be applied to everything, states have rights.
Engel v Vitale
- Establishment clause- Prayers in public schools cant be mandated
Wisconsin v Yoder
- Free exercise clause- Amish student wanted to leave after 8th grade
Mcdonald v Chicago
- selective incorporation of the second amendment
Brown v board
- connected to letter from birmingham jail, declaration of independence
Citizens United v FEC
- Pacs and corporations can donate to candidates, protected by free speech
Baker v Carr
- One person gets one vote, equal power for each vote
Shaw v Reno
- Racial gerrymandering deemed unconstitutional
Civil liberties
Liberty and order
Relationship between individual and government
- Engel v Vitale- government can't force religion on individuals
- Wisconsin V yoder- Government has to allow for free exercise of religion, cant parent individuals
- US v Lopez- Commerce clauses can be stretched to anything. Guns in schools
- TInker v Des Moines- Unless its constitutionality is valid, students are entitled to freedom of expression in their views.
New York Times v US-
FRQ 2: graphs and data Court found that not allowing the publication of the info was a violation of freedom of the press (court ruled this way because info was out of date, only hurting the reputation of the government.)
Schenck v US- Argued that speech creating a clear and present danger was not protected by the first amendment
Civil liberties 2 Relationship between individuals and infringement of liberties
- Gideon v Wainwright- Court found that rights of the 6th amendment must be carried by the state, Gideon left without representation in court and had to fight for himself with no attorney.
- Mcdonald v Chicago- Individuals have the right to keep guns in their homes, carried down to state level through selective incorporation
Towards equality
Civic Participation in a representative democracy (the 14ths equal protection clause can be used here)
Brown v Board- Challenges segregation, separate but equal is inherently unequal
Campaign Finance Civic participation in a representative democracy
- Citizens United v FEC- Found that corporations can donate to campaigns without a limit, as it would violate their free speech
Congress elections Constitutionalism
- Baker V Carr- One person gets one vote, equal power for each vote
- Shaw V Reno- Racial gerrymandering unconstitutional

Analyzing Data & Trends

Identify the region seeing the largest absolute increase in voting age cardinals from 2013-2025 Asia Pacific was the region with the largest absolute increase.
Describe a similarity or difference between how the shares of Asia pacific and Sub Saharan Africa changed over time One similarity is that both have increased over time. In Asia Pacific, there was an increase from 10% in 2013 to 18% in 2025. In Sub Saharan Africa there was an increase from 8% in 2013 to 12% in 2025.
Draw a conclusion about the shift in Europe's share from 51% to 40% suggests about Pope Frances’s appointments of cardinals Europe decreased over time, while other areas with higher percentages of Catholics increased in representation. This means that Pope Frances saw a need to increase diversity in Cardinals.
Explain how the movement towards a more geographically balanced College of Cardinals reflects the principle of pluralism in institutional governance. The movement towards this more geographically balanced College of Cardinals reflects pluralism because in pluralism, everyone gets representation. In this scenario, the college is being balanced to allow for more regions to be accurately represented. This means that everyone will get much more balanced representation. It enhances legitimacy, as members everywhere get a say and viewpoints are all expressed.