Cities of Vesuvius
Geographical setting and Natural features of Campania
Southern Italy → Campania region near coast of Bay of Naples. Famous for fertile volcanic soil.
Pompeii next to Sarno river and lies southeast of Mt. Vesuvius
Herculaneum lies southwest to Vesuvius and closer to modern day Naples
Supported range of natural vegetation: oak; beech; cedar and agricultural produce: figs; plums; grapes ; olives; lemons; apricots
Ideal setting for trade hub and fishing economy
Seneca (philosopher): “The city is pleasant bay, some distance from the open sea..Herculaneum on the other, the shores meet there”
Baccus and Mount Vesuvius painting from House of Centenary
Pliny the younger: “Campania has a wealth of different kinds of forest..And abundance of corn, vines and olives”
The Eruption of 79 AD and its impact on Pompeii and Herculaneum
Two stages of eruption: First the Plinian phase characterised by initial explosion, in which the volcano emits a cloud of ash, pumice, and gas. Second the pyroclastic surge, a dense avalanche of molten rock, pumice, and ash.
Pliny the younger: “It was not a lear at the distance from which mountain the cloud was rising”
Gianni Gallelo on Pompeii: “Gas hot enough to evaporate bodily fluids…It’s more likely that the victim die of asphyxia during a low temperature pyroclastic flow and were buried under a layer of volcanic ash.’
Dog in the house of Tragic Poet: asphyxiation
Statigraphy study by Volcanist Sigurdson and Casey shows Herculaneum was the upwind of the fallout
Pompeii: Estelle Lazer suggest that the leading cause of death was through concussion and injuries sustained from collapsing buildings → suggested by fractured bones in archaeological records. Scientific analysis further reveals ash in the eruption was porus and the moisture in peoples lungs caused suffocation → supported by the open mouths of victims.
Herculaneum: Pagano, Moastrolorenzon, and Patrone conducted chemical analysis upon the skulls from the human remains revealed the discolouration on the bone was brain matter, highlighting likely caused of death was thermal shock. The intense heat vaporised soft tissue and the lack of oxyen carbonised and preserved the bones. Estelle Lazer analysis found common position in the victims, lying down face covered whilst there spines were extended, undermined the extreme heat that preserved them in this defensive position.
Early Discoveries and changing nature of excavation
Herculaneum: Prince d’elbeuf founded large slabs of marble in 1709; Karl Webber a Swiss architect and engineer found the Villa of Papyri in 1750
Pompeii: Domenico Fontana a Roman architect uncovered ruined buildings and inscription in 1689; La Vega found the Temple of isis in 1765
1738: Rocque de Alcubierre began excavation in Herculaneum, used tunneling methods to locate treasures (uncovered theatre, temples, forum and basilica)
1748: Alcubierre began excavation in Pompeii
1823: Carloo Bonucci resumed work in Herculaneum with a systemic excavation approach but still driven by search for art
1860: Giuseppe Fiorelli introduced modern archaeological methods in Pompeii. Pioneered the grid system for mapping and developed plaster cast technique to preserve the bodies in ash
1870: Fiorelli’s influence spread to Herculaneum, though excavation remains challenging due to volcanic sediments and modern settlements
1927-1961: Amedeo Mauiri led major excavation, uncovered neighbourhoods + large public buildings. Focused on statigraphy
1930: Mauri excavation in Herculaneum revealed bew sections. Adapted to careful methods and reconstructed buildings to give a sense of orginal architecture
Post WWII: Excavation slowed in favour of preservation. Conservation became a priority as exposure to elements began to damage uncovered structured and artefacts (e.g paintings oxidising and mosaics lightening)
2000s: Preventive conservation measures were introduced, including better water drainage and climate control
2003: Herculaneum conservation project led by Andrew Wallace-Hadrill implemented modern conservation techniques, using laser scanning and 3D modelling to document the site. Restoration work emphasised sustainability
Early 2000s-2010s: Pompeii conservation took precedence over new excavations due to increasing decay. Tourism management and protective measures introduced to minimise further damage.
Representations of Pompeii and Herculaneum overtime
1830 Karl Bryullov’s painting ‘Last Days of Pompeii’ → Cataclysmic end, God’s vengeance on pagan people
20-21st Century: Pompeii The Last Day → Documentary/Drama; Robert Harris’ novel ‘Pompeii’ a story about a young engineer; Pompeii 2014 movie
Focus study: Investigating and interpreting sources
The economy: Role of forum, trade, commerce, industries, occupations
Forum
Large open area, main public buildings
Two-story public buildings surrounded the forum in three sides
Religious buildings: Temple of Apollo, Jupiter, Genus of Augustus, Fortuna Augusta, Temple of Lares
Commercial buildings - Macellum, Mensa Ponderia, Building of Eumachia
Political buildings - Basilica (where trials were held and businesses were carried out), comitium, statues, minister offices, cases were heard
Religious ceremonies and political debates took plase
Private advertisements posted on panels called alba
Trade
Strabo writes that both fishing and agricultural production was a main aspect of trade and described Pompeii as a “fortified trading post”
Pompeiian potter found across ancient Roman Empire
In contrast Brennah and Lazer argued Pompeii’s economy was limited to the Campania region
Commerce
Villas and industry workshops existed as neighbours
Some private houses or rooms within them had been transformed into businesses e.g. House of Stephanues where the implivium had been converted into laundry
Both temporary and permanent markets were held within the Pompeiian forum