Environmental Engineering: History, Policy, and Justice (Vocabulary Flashcards)

Overview

• Health, protection of nature's beneficial ecosystems, and enhancement of the quality of human life are the three core aspects of environmental engineering.

• Scope includes: safe drinking water, wastewater treatment, controlling and cleaning air pollution, hazardous waste disposal, general waste management, and risk assessments for contaminants.

• Climate change is a major topic; environmental engineers perform assessments to understand current status and project future scenarios.

• Environmental engineering connects the past, present, and future:

  • Past: cleanup of contaminated sites and development of strategies to resolve historical problems.

  • Present: development of technologies to provide safe drinking water and treat effluent.

  • Future: prevention of pollution and reduction of climate impact.

• Origins as sanitation engineering focused on health via clean water and wastewater removal, not primarily environmental protection.

Early history of sanitation engineering

• 4,000 BCE (Mesopotamia): clay sewer pipes in temples to remove wastewater.

• Indus Valley Civilization: networks for providing clean water and removing wastewater.

• Roman Empire: aqueducts providing clean water; multiple facilities to provide clean water and remove dirty water.

• 1700s–1800s: rapid urbanization outpaced sewer development; no common sewer systems; wastewater often dumped into cesspools or rivers (e.g., the Thames).

• Cuyahoga River fires as a symbol of pollution before modern regulation: several fires starting in 1868, with notable fires in 1912, 1952, and 1969; the 1952 fire caused ${12{,}600{,}000}$ in damage.

• London’s Great Stink (hot summer) motivated action to build a modern sewer system; Joseph Bazalgette led the project (often cited as the first environmental engineer).

• United States: first sewer systems built in the $1850s$ in Chicago and Brooklyn; early focus remained sanitation rather than environmental protection.

Transition from sanitation engineering to environmental protection

• The shift toward environmental protection began in the 1960s, catalyzed by Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring (1962), which presented irrefutable evidence that DDT entered the food chain and harmed wildlife and humans.

• This spurred policy attention at the highest levels: John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson prioritized environmental issues.

• The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) was established on $12/02/1970$ with a mission to protect human health by safeguarding air, water, and land.

• EPA roles include:

  • Conducting research on pollutants in air, water, soil, etc.

  • Monitoring environmental conditions and establishing baselines for safety.

  • Enforcing standards for air and water quality (the EPA has enforcement authority to shut down or fine violators).

• This history sets the stage for the major environmental legislation that follows.

The EPA and its mandate

• Establishes research on pollutants and monitors environmental baselines.

• Enforces air and water quality standards via regulatory authority.

• Without enforcement power, standards would have little impact.

Key environmental legislation and regulatory framework

• Water pollution focus (surface water)

  • Cuyahoga River fires contributed to public awareness and regulatory action.

  • The Clean Water Act (CWA) enacted in $1972$ established wastewater standards and the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES).

  • Point sources (industrial, municipal) must meet EPA effluent limits; nonpoint sources (e.g., agricultural runoff) are less regulated under CWA.

  • Amendments added: $1977$ and $1987$, tightening standards and expanding coverage to more pollutants; recognizing nonpoint sources.

  • Before CWA (1972): only ~one-third of America's surface waters suitable for swimming/fishing; post-CWA improvement to about 12% more suitable water, and wastewater treatment plant coverage rose from $8{,}000{,}000$ to about $175{,}000{,}000$ people served.

  • Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement (US–Canada) aided cleanup of the Great Lakes; Chesapeake Bay Foundation formed to monitor and clean the Bay.

  • Gulf of Mexico dead zones persist due to nutrient pollution (nitrogen and phosphorus) driving algal blooms and subsequent oxygen depletion.

  • Chesapeake Bay and Gulf of Mexico dead zones illustrate uniform nutrient-driven eutrophication in large estuarine systems.

  • Dead zone example (NOAA, 2024): approx. $5{,}800 ext{ mi}^2$ in the Gulf of Mexico.

  • Causes: fertilizer runoff from lawns and agriculture, rivers carrying nitrogen and phosphorus from inland sources to estuaries.

• Drinking water regulation

  • Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) established in $1974$; sets minimum standards for drinking water supplies (national primary drinking water regulations).

  • Contaminant categories covered: microorganisms, disinfectants/disinfection byproducts, organic and inorganic chemicals, and radionuclides.

  • Two amendments to SDWA broadened and tightened standards (details not specified in transcript).

  • Notable drinking water incidents:

  • Milwaukee cryptosporidiosis outbreak ($1993$): >$4.0 imes 10^5$ people sick; around $1.0 imes 10^2$ immunocompromised deaths; linked to contamination at one of two treatment plants.

  • Flint, Michigan ($2014$): switch from Detroit water to Flint River water; more corrosive water leached lead from old pipes; >$9{,}000$ children exposed to high lead levels; issue addressed after ~$18$ months; EPA action level for lead is $15 ext{ ppb}$, with Flint samples up to $100 ext{ ppb}$.

  • SDWA established national thresholds to ensure safe drinking water; ongoing concerns require ongoing monitoring and updates.

Air pollution and the Clean Air Act

• Donora, Pennsylvania (1948): smog event caused by zinc smelting/steel plants; 20 deaths, ~7,000 sick; caused by temperature inversion trapping pollutants near ground level.

• London smog (1952): five days of smog, about 6,000 deaths; similar temperature inversion effects.

• Clean Air Act (CAA) enacted in $1970$; established National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) to regulate six pollutants; emphasis on reducing emissions from transportation and industry to protect public health.

• Vehicle emissions: part of CAA; goal included reducing motor vehicle emissions by 90 ext{%} within $5$ years; automobile sector initially met or exceeded these standards.

• Amendments to CAA: additional toxic pollutants added; 1990 amendments addressed ozone depletion and other issues; EPA continues refining standards as needed.

Toxic waste pollution and Superfund (CERCLA)

• Notable sites:

  • Love Canal (New York): canal turned into a chemical dumpsite in the early 20th century; later covered with homes and a school, leading to many hazardous exposures and illnesses.

  • Valley of the Drums (Kentucky): 23-acre site with >$1.0 imes 10^5$ drums; fires occurred in $1966$ and lasted over a week; numerous hazardous substances including PCBs and heavy metals.

• CERCLA (Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act) – better known as Superfund – enacted in $1980$.

  • EPA authority to clean up contaminated sites and to recover cleanup costs from responsible parties.

  • EPA creates the National Priorities List (NPL); sites on the NPL receive cleanup priority.

  • Since 1980, about $424$ sites have been deleted from the NPL and returned to productive use; many others partially cleaned up.

  • Near-term goal of Superfund: cleanup and return to productive use; note that some sites may be deemed unsuitable for residential use even after cleanup (industrial or other uses).

• Visual/interactive note: there is an online map with Superfund sites across the US; readers can click on each site to read about problems and EPA actions.

Global warming and climate policy

• Global warming refers to the long-term rise in Earth's average surface temperature; current warming exceeds $1^ op C$ above preindustrial levels.

• Observed and projected impacts include:

  • Heat waves are now about $3 imes$ more frequent in the US than in the 1960s.

  • Heat waves are a leading cause of environmental deaths in the US.

  • Droughts: between $2000$ and $2020$, 20 ext{%} to 70 ext{%} of the US experienced abnormally dry conditions; droughts are especially severe in California due to water scarcity affecting agriculture and food supply, with inflationary pressures.

  • Wildfires: the rate and magnitude of wildfires have increased; the most severe seasons (in terms of acreage burned) have occurred since the early 2000s in the western US and Canada.

  • Ice melt: Greenland and Antarctica lose >$10^{11}$ metric tons of ice per year on average, contributing to sea-level rise and reducing planetary albedo, creating a positive feedback loop that accelerates warming.

• Policy responses:

  • Paris Climate Agreement (adopted in 2016; 192 countries signed). The aim is to limit global average temperature rise to $riangle T ext{ (global)} = 2^ op ext{C}$ above preindustrial levels. The US has had a shifting participation history; as of January 2025 the US is not part of the agreement.

  • Financial and technology support for developing countries to deploy renewables was promised but underdelivered; ongoing challenges include financing, implementation, and accountability.

  • Inflation Reduction Act (IRA) of $2022$: intends to invest $3.69 imes 10^{11}$ dollars (i.e., $369 ext{ billion}$) in climate solutions and environmental justice, aiming for ≈40 ext{%} emission reductions by $2030$; political shifts have affected disbursements and approvals for renewables.

Environmental justice

• Definition: fair treatment and meaningful involvement of all people, regardless of race, color, national origin, or income, with respect to development, implementation, and enforcement of environmental laws and policies.

• How injustice manifests:

  • Hazardous waste siting and facility placement often occurs in low-income and communities of color.

  • Land often cheaper in these communities, and opposition to siting is weaker or less effective, leading to disproportionate exposure to hazards.

  • Notable historical attention began in the 1980s; Warren County, NC (1982) saw local protests against PCB-contaminated soil being used as landfill in a largely African American community.

  • 1983 GAO report mapped hazardous waste landfills with census data, showing disproportionate placement in areas with higher minority populations.

  • 1987 United Church of Christ (UCC) study found that about 60 ext{%} of hazardous waste landfills were in predominantly Black or Hispanic communities; about 60 ext{%} of Black and Hispanic Americans lived near uncontrolled toxic waste sites.

  • A follow-up in 2007 found persistent racial disparities: nearly $9{,}000{,}000$ people lived within 3 km of roughly $4{,}143$ commercial hazardous waste facilities; of these, about $5{,}100{,}000$ were people of color.

  • Race was a stronger predictor of hazardous waste facility siting than household income or home value.

• Indigenous and other communities facing environmental injustice:

  • Navajo uranium mining (1964–1974) led to elevated birth defects in newborns in Shiprock; 2–8 times the national average during a 10-year period.

  • Cancer Alley (Louisiana): 85-mile stretch along the Mississippi River with heavy petrochemical activity; African Americans comprise about 40 ext{%} of the population along this corridor (nationally ≈12 ext{%}); cancer death rate in Louisiana is $203$ deaths per $100{,}000$ vs national $176$ per $100{,}000$.

  • EPA (National Center for Environmental Assessment) 2018: Black people exposed to $1.5 imes$ the particulate matter (PM2.5) exposure; Latino people exposed to $1.2 imes$.

  • CDC (2010): African Americans 40% more likely to have asthma than whites; asthma death rate is 75% higher among African Americans.

  • Lead exposure study (1999–2010): African American children are $2.5 imes$ more likely to have elevated blood lead levels than white children.

• Ethical and practical implications:

  • Environmental justice is an essential consideration for fairness in policy design, siting decisions, and enforcement.

  • Engineers should integrate equity into project planning and prioritize protecting vulnerable communities.

Final note and assignment

• The instructor announced an assignment to be posted on Canvas; students should check the course platform for details.

Connections to foundational principles and real-world relevance

• Links between public health, environmental quality, and sustainable development.

• Demonstrates how regulation, policy, and technology interact to improve (and sometimes fail to protect) environmental health.

• Highlights the role of scientific evidence (e.g., Silent Spring, epidemiological studies) in catalyzing policy action.

• Emphasizes ethical dimensions of engineering practice, particularly environmental justice and equitable risk distribution.

Quick reference highlights (dates, figures, and terms)

• Ephemeral historical milestones:

  • $4{,}000 ext{ B.C.E.}$ Mesopotamia sanitation innovations; $ext{Indus Valley}$; $ext{Roman}$ aqueducts.

  • Donora, PA: $1948$; 20 deaths; 7{,}000+ sick.

  • London Smog: $1952$; ~6{,}000 deaths over 5 days.

  • Bazalgette’s sewer system: 19th century London improvement.

• Key acts and dates:

  • EPA established: $1970-12-02$.

  • Clean Water Act: $1972$; NPDES; amendments $1977$, $1987$.

  • Safe Drinking Water Act: $1974$; national primary standards; contaminants include microorganisms, disinfectants/byproducts, organics, inorganics, radionuclides.

  • Clean Air Act: $1970$; NAAQS for six pollutants; vehicle emission controls targeting $90\%$ reduction in $5$ years; amendments in $1990$ for ozone and toxic pollutants.

  • CERCLA (Superfund): $1980$; NPL; ${424}$ sites deleted to date.

  • Paris Agreement: 2016; US joined, left, and rejoined; status as of Jan 2025 not part of the agreement.

  • Inflation Reduction Act: $2022$; $369\times 10^9$ USD; target: ≈$40\%$ emission reductions by $2030$.

• Key environmental health concerns:

  • Algal blooms and dead zones driven by nitrogen and phosphorus; Gulf of Mexico dead zone ~$5{,}800 ext{ mi}^2$ (2024 NOAA estimate).

  • Lead exposure in drinking water; action level $15\ ext{ppb}$; Flint up to $100\ ext{ppb}$.

  • PM2.5 exposure disparities: Black $1.5\times$; Latino $1.2\times$; asthma disparities in CDC data.

• Notable sites and concepts:

  • Love Canal; Valley of the Drums; Superfund (CERCLA) and the NPL; community health impacts and remediation goals.

  • NAQS (National Ambient Air Quality Standards) and six regulated pollutants; coordination with transportation sector.

  • Nonpoint source pollution challenges and limitations of regulation under the CWA.