Study Guide: American Imperialism

Intellectual and Political Supporters of American Imperialism

  • Alfred T. Mahan     * Significance: He was the author of the influential book, The Influence of Sea Power on History.     * Role: Mahan played a crucial role in promoting American imperialism by arguing that a strong, large navy was an absolute necessity for building and maintaining an empire.

  • Reverend Josiah Strong     * Significance: He was the author of the publication Our Country.     * Role: His work was a racist account that argued Anglo-Saxons (white people) were superior to people of color. He claimed that whites had an ethical obligation to spread their influence and "the word" to what he characterized as "lower peoples."

  • Henry Cabot Lodge     * Significance: He served as a Senator from Massachusetts.     * Role: Lodge advanced the ideology of imperialism within the halls of Congress, specifically the Senate, promoting the idea that the strong have a responsibility or need to lead the weak.

  • Albert Beveridge     * Significance: He was a Senator representing Indiana.     * Role: Similar to Henry Cabot Lodge, Beveridge was a vocal supporter who backed the expansion of American Imperialism.

  • James G. Blaine     * Significance: He served as the Secretary of State under both President James A. Garfield and President Benjamin Harrison.     * Role: Blaine pushed for the expansion of American influence specifically in Latin America, which included regions of Central and South America.

Early Diplomatic Efforts and Hegemonic Interests

  • The Pan-American Conference     * Definition and Importance: This was an attempt to unite the nations of Latin America economically.     * Outcome: While the conference itself failed to achieve immediate goals, it served as a significant first step toward the eventual unification of Latin American nations through various treaties with the United States.

  • Conflict in Samoa     * Background: The United States and Germany were engaged in a battle for control over this island nation.     * Strategic Value: Samoa was considered strategically important because its location aided Western trade routes with Asia.     * Resolution: Great Britain eventually helped settle the dispute. The result was a split of Samoa between the United States and Germany; Great Britain received territories elsewhere. Notably, the Samoan people were never consulted during these negotiations.

The Annexation of Hawaii

  • Economic Motives     * Sanford B. Dole and other investors had significant financial interests in Hawaiian sugar.     * The primary goal of annexation was to avoid the McKinley Tariff (an import tax) by making Hawaii an official part of the United States.

  • The Overthrow of the Monarchy     * Investors organized a rebellion against the reigning monarch, Queen Liliuokalani.     * Queen Liliuokalani: She was a beloved queen, and the rebellion against her was largely composed of individuals paid by Sanford Dole.     * Outcome for the Queen: She was eventually exiled and forced to leave the territory.

  • Presidential and Political Response     * President Grover Cleveland initially wanted to halt the annexation until a full investigation into the matter could be conducted.     * Hawaii first became independent with Sanford B. Dole serving as its president.     * Later, Hawaii was annexed to the U.S., with Sanford B. Dole transitioning into the role of the first American governor.     * Significance of Date: Independence/Annexation milestones are associated with July 4.

The Road to the Spanish-American War

  • Events in Cuba     * The primary interest in Cuba was related to the sugar industry.     * American investors were eager to get the U.S. involved to protect their financial investments in Cuban sugar.

  • Yellow Journalism     * Definition: Exaggerated stories published in newspapers regarding atrocities allegedly perpetrated by the Spanish against the Cuban people.     * Role: This style of reporting helped establish public support for American intervention in the Cuban civil war. While the stated reason for intervention was to protect people, the actual underlying reason was to protect American investments.

  • Key Media Figures     * William Randolph Hearst: A major newspaper owner who sent reporters to Cuba to find stories of Spanish atrocities. He notably sent the artist Frederick Remington to capture these stories through illustrations.     * Joseph Pulitzer: Another prominent newspaper editor who rivaled Hearst in trying to generate exaggerated stories about Spanish atrocities to sway public opinion.     * Frederick Remington: An artist sent to Cuba; however, he found himself unable to document actual Spanish atrocities as they had been described.

  • The U.S.S. Maine Incident     * The Event: The ship exploded and sank in Havana Harbor while on what was described as a "mission of friendship" meant to protect American interests and citizens.     * Consequences: Spain was immediately blamed for the explosion. This event served as the stimulus or impetus for a formal declaration of war against Spain.     * Famous Slogan: "Remember the Maine, to hell with Spain."

Legislative Actions and Anti-Imperialist Sentiment

  • The Teller Amendment     * Function: This amendment was included in the war bill to prohibit the United States from officially annexing Cuba after the conflict.

  • The Anti-Imperialism League     * General Stance: Members were strictly against American imperialism in various regions including Cuba, the Philippines, and Hawaii.     * Key Members:         * Charles Francis Adams         * Jane Addams         * Andrew Carnegie (industrialist)         * Mark Twain (author)         * Grover Cleveland (former President)         * John Dewey (noted education reformer)

Conflict in the Philippines and the Caribbean

  • The Philippine-American Conflict     * Context: This began as a civil war against Spanish rule. Americans became involved as a component of the broader Spanish-American War.     * Emilio Aguinaldo: He was the rebel leader of the Philippine Revolution. Initially, he was supported by the United States.     * Commodore George Dewey: An American naval leader who launched an attack on the Spanish in the Philippine capital, Manila. While Dewey could not defeat the Spanish entirely on his own, his presence and support enabled Emilio Aguinaldo to achieve victory.

  • The Rough Riders     * Leadership: This group was led by Theodore (Teddy) Roosevelt, who resigned from his position as Assistant Secretary of the Navy to lead the volunteer unit.     * Significance: They were instrumental in defeating the Spanish at San Juan Hill in Cuba. This victory served as a primary rationalization for American involvement in Cuba.

  • Treaty of Paris (Ending the Spanish-American War)     * Cuba: Recognized as free, though Americans retained ownership of most property within the country.     * Puerto Rico and Guam: These territories became U.S. possessions, though they were not granted statehood.     * The Philippines: Became a protectorate of the United States. This status lasted for 34 years until they were able to establish a stable government, eventually achieving independence on July 4.

The Mexican Revolution and Imperial Interests

  • American Influence in Mexico     * The Mexican Revolution influenced imperialist thought by demonstrating Mexico's potential role in American economic and political interests.     * It marked the beginning of evolving relations between the United States and Mexico.

  • Key Figures in the Mexican Revolution     * Porfirio Diaz: A dictator supported by Americans. The Mexican people eventually revolted against his rule.     * Francisco Madero: A rebel leader who fought against Diaz and won control of the country. Despite his victory, the U.S. government decided he "had to go."     * General Huerta: A Native American leader who led a revolt against Madero with the support of the United States. However, after he won, the U.S. determined he was not friendly to American interests and decided he also "needed to go."     * Francisco "Pancho" Villa: A revolutionary leader who was initially backed by the United States. He eventually turned against American domination in Mexico, leading the U.S. to withdraw support and seek his removal.

  • General John "Blackjack" Pershing     * Role: He was sent into Mexico with the specific mission to capture Pancho Villa.     * Outcome: Pershing failed to capture Villa. However, Villa was eventually assassinated by his own men, which facilitated continued American influence in Mexican affairs.

Political Shifts in Imperialism

  • The Election Context     * Charles Evans Hughes: An ex-governor of New York nominated by the Republicans to run for President.     * Woodrow Wilson: The Democratic candidate and incumbent.     * Policy Differences: Hughes campaigned on a platform of continuing the current path of American imperialism. In contrast, Woodrow Wilson promised to take a less aggressive approach to foreign policy and imperialism.