Modern History Notes: Enlightenment

Principles

  • Prelude: Scientific Revolution

    • This era emphasized observation, experimentation, and reason, challenging traditional authorities.

    • It fostered confidence in human reason and the belief that the universe operated according to discoverable natural laws.

  • Core principles: secular reason; belief in progress; tolerance

    • Secular Reason: A shift towards logic and empirical evidence, moving away from religious explanations to understand the world.

    • Belief in Progress: The conviction that humanity could improve society and itself through reason and knowledge.

    • Tolerance: Advocacy for religious freedom, intellectual diversity, and acceptance of different ideas.

  • Influence: Isaac Newton as hero of the Scientific Revolution, inspiring the Enlightenment

    • Newton's discovery of universal laws exemplified the power of human reason, providing a model for applying rational principles to politics and society.

Public Sphere

  • Print culture

    • The increase in books, pamphlets, and journals made knowledge more accessible and facilitated public debate.

    • It played a crucial role in spreading Enlightenment ideas.

  • Writing

    • Philosophers produced diverse works, from scientific treatises to essays and novels, often in accessible language.

  • Encyclopedia

    • Edited by Denis Diderot and Jean le Rond d'Alembert.

    • Aimed to compile all human knowledge, promote critical thinking, and challenge traditional authority.

  • Gatherings: coffeehouses, salons

    • Coffeehouses: Public spaces for discussing news, politics, and philosophy among diverse social groups.

    • Salons: Private gatherings, typically hosted by women, where intellectuals debated ideas.

  • Republic of Letters

    • An international community of intellectuals who exchanged ideas through correspondence and publications, fostering a shared intellectual culture.

  • Public opinion

    • The emergence of an informed collective viewpoint that began to influence government policy and social norms, signaling a new force in political life.

Politics

  • Voltaire: enlightened monarchy

    • Advocated for strong, rational monarchs who would use their absolute power to implement reforms based on Enlightenment principles, such as religious tolerance and legal reform.

  • Montesquieu, The Spirit of the Laws (1748): separation of powers

    • Proposed dividing governmental power into legislative, executive, and judicial branches to prevent tyranny and ensure liberty, influencing documents like the U.S. Constitution.

  • John Locke, Two Treatises of Government (1689): natural rights, social contract, consent of the governed

    • Natural Rights: Inherent rights to life, liberty, and property that governments cannot infringe upon.

    • Social Contract: Government is a voluntary agreement where individuals trade some freedoms for state protection of their rights.

    • Consent of the Governed: Government legitimacy stems from the people's approval, implying a right to revolt if rights are violated.

  • Jean-Jacques Rousseau, The Social Contract (1762): general will

    • Argued that legitimate political authority derives from the collective agreement of citizens, expressed as the