Colonization of North America

European explorers were in search of new routes to Asia for trade to get spices, silk, and other valuable goods.
Christopher Columbus's voyage in 1492, sponsored by Spain, led to the encounter of the Americas; Columbus believed he had reached the Indies.
The Columbian Exchange: The transfer of plants, animals, diseases, and culture between the Old World (Europe, Africa, and Asia) and the New World (Americas).
- Examples include horses, cattle, wheat from Europe, and potatoes, tomatoes, and maize from the Americas.
- Devastating impact: Old World diseases like smallpox, measles, and influenza decimated Native American populations who lacked immunity.

Spanish conquistadores were driven by gold, glory (fame and power), and God (spreading Christianity), leading to the conquest of vast territories in the Americas.
Treaty of Tordesillas (1494): Divided newly discovered lands outside Europe between Spain and Portugal along a meridian west of the Cape Verde islands.
- Spain gained most of the Americas, while Portugal got Brazil, Africa and Asia trade routes.
Key figures: Vasco Nuñez Balboa (claimed the Pacific Ocean for Spain), Ferdinand Magellan (his crew circumnavigated the globe), Juan Ponce de León (searched for the Fountain of Youth in Florida), Francisco Coronado (explored the Southwest in search of the Seven Cities of Gold), Hernando de Soto (explored the Southeast), and Francisco Pizarro (conquered the Incas in Peru).
The encomienda system: A labor system that exploited Native Americans by granting Spanish settlers the right to demand labor or tribute from the native population.
- This system led to abuse and exploitation, contributing to the decline of Native American populations.
Cortés conquered the Aztecs in Mexico (1519-1521), utilizing superior weaponry, alliances with rival tribes, and disease.
Pizarro conquered the Incas in Peru (1532-1533), exploiting internal divisions and using military force.
Malinche (Doña Marina): served as translator and advisor for Cortés, playing a key role in the Spanish conquest of Mexico leading to the term malinchista which means traitor in the Mexican language.

The Spanish established settlements in Florida (St. Augustine, the oldest continuously inhabited European-established settlement in the US), New Mexico (Santa Fe), Texas (San Antonio), and California (missions led by Father Junipero Serra).
- Missions aimed to convert Native Americans to Christianity and assimilate them into Spanish culture.
Popé’s Rebellion (1680): A Pueblo Indian uprising led by Popé against Spanish rule in New Mexico, resulting in the expulsion of the Spanish for over a decade.
The "Black Legend": Propaganda that criticized the Spanish Empire, exaggerating the cruelty towards Native Americans and portraying Spain as exceptionally evil.
Bartolomé de las Casas documented the mistreatment of Native Americans, contributing to the "Black Legend."

Native American societies were diverse, with varying levels of social, political, and agricultural development, adapted to their local environments.
Incas, Mayans, and Aztecs had advanced civilizations with agriculture (especially maize), mathematics, and astronomy, developing complex social structures, religious beliefs, and impressive architectural achievements.
The Iroquois Confederacy: A strong political and military alliance of five (later six) Native American nations (Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, Seneca, and Tuscarora) in northeastern North America.
- Known for their sophisticated political system and military strength.

The Great Ice Age: Shaped the landscape, created the Bering Land Bridge, and influenced human migration and distribution of natural resources.
Bering Land Bridge: A land bridge that connected Asia and North America during the Ice Age, facilitating the migration of Asian hunters (Paleo-Indians) to the Americas.
- These migrants were the ancestors of modern Native Americans.