The Psychology of Learning 2025 MWH

Classical Conditioning

  • Definition: Learning via association of two or more stimuli that are usually unrelated; involves an involuntary reflex.
  • Key figure: Ivan Pavlov; discovered by accident while studying digestion in dogs; dogs salivate to researchers' footsteps (associated with food).
  • Core terms:
    • NS (Neutral Stimulus): no initial response
    • US (Unconditioned Stimulus): elicits an unconditioned response
    • UR (Unconditioned Response): reflexive response to US
    • CS (Conditioned Stimulus): NS after association with US
    • CR (Conditioned Response): learned response to CS
  • Typical sequence: NS + US repeatedly paired → CS emerges → CR occurs to CS even without US.
  • Example: Dexter (dog) salivates to bell after bell (NS) is repeatedly paired with food (US).

Ivan Pavlov – Classical Conditioning

  • Set-up: Salivation to food (US → UR); bell becomes CS; salivation to bell becomes CR.
  • Repetition of pairing UCS (food) & NS (bell) leads to conditioned response (CR) to CS (bell).
  • Recap points:
    • Bell starts as NS; food is US; salivation is UR; learning occurs when CS elicits salivation (CR).
  • Summary implication: Classical conditioning explains how reflexive behaviours can be learned through associations.

Little Albert (Watson & Raynor)

  • Participants: Albert, aged about 9−11 months9-11\text{ months} old.
  • Stimuli: white rat (NS) paired with loud noise (US).
  • Outcome: Albert cried when seeing the rat (CR); fear generalized to similar stimuli (generalization).
  • Note: Ethical concerns raised about the study.

Key Terms – Classical Conditioning (recap)

  • Neutral Stimulus (NS): a stimulus that does not evoke a response initially.
  • Unconditioned Stimulus (US): a stimulus that elicits an unconditioned response.
  • Unconditioned Response (UR): a reflex/innate response.
  • Conditioned Stimulus (CS): a previously neutral stimulus that now elicits a learned response.
  • Conditioned Response (CR): a learned response to the CS.

Stimulus Generalisation vs. Stimulus Discrimination

  • Generalisation: CR occurs in response to stimuli similar to the CS (e.g., dog salivating to similar sounds).
  • Discrimination: CR occurs only to the original CS, not to similar stimuli.

Extinction, Spontaneous Recovery

  • Extinction: reduction in CR when CS is repeatedly presented without US.
  • Spontaneous recovery: reappearance of an extinguished CR after a rest period.

Acquisition Phase vs Performance Phase

  • Acquisition: learning phase where CS-US pairings increase learning (CR rises).
  • Performance: when CR is shown without the US being present.

Preparedness

  • Some associations are learned more easily due to evolutionary survival advantages (e.g., fear of spiders, snakes).
  • Taste aversions can be learned easily via classical conditioning.

Fears, Phobias, Systematic Desensitisation & CBT

  • Fear vs Phobia:
    • Fear: rational or normal reaction to danger; can function normally.
    • Phobia: irrational, excessive fear that impairs functioning.
  • Systematic Desensitisation:
    • Step 1: Relaxation techniques.
    • Step 2: Create an anxiety hierarchy.
    • Step 3: Pair relaxation with escalating fear scenarios to replace fear with relaxation.
  • CBT (Cognitive Behavioural Therapy):
    • Exposure-based; helps understand/manage distorted thoughts.
    • Often faster than systematic desensitisation but more intensive.
  • Advantages/Disadvantages
    • Systematic desensitisation: gradual, ethical, but slow and potentially costly.
    • CBT: effective across ages; may be more confronting and costly.

Operant Conditioning

  • Definition: Learning via consequences; behavior strengthened by reinforcement, weakened by lack of reinforcement or punishment.
  • Distinction: Classical conditioning = involuntary responses; Operant conditioning = voluntary behaviours.
  • Pioneer: B.F. Skinner; experiments with rats/pigeons in a Skinner Box; reinforcement drives behaviour.
  • Key terms:
    • Reinforcer: increases likelihood of a response
    • Punisher: decreases likelihood of a response

Reinforcement & Punishment

  • Positive Reinforcement: add a pleasant stimulus after a behavior (e.g., food pellet after lever press).
  • Negative Reinforcement: remove an unpleasant stimulus after a behavior (e.g., turn off electric shock when correct lever press).
  • Punishment: decreases behavior; can be aversive (positive punishment) or removal of a pleasant stimulus (response cost/negative punishment).
  • Punishment caveats: can cause resentment, aggression, and may not teach replacement behaviours.

Schedules of Reinforcement

  • Continuous reinforcement: reward every correct behaviour; fast learning but rapid extinction when stopped.
  • Fixed Interval (FI): reinforcement after a predictable time interval; performance rises as interval approaches; may drop after reinforcement.
  • Variable Interval (VI): reinforcement at unpredictable times; steady, moderate response; more resistant to extinction.
  • Fixed Ratio (FR): reinforcement after a predictable number of responses; high response rate with pauses after reinforcement; extinction rapid when removed.
  • Variable Ratio (VR): reinforcement after unpredictable number of responses; high, steady response; highly resistant to extinction; highly addictive in some contexts.
  • Quick guide: Interval = time; Ratio = responses; Fixed = predictable; Variable = unpredictable.

Shaping & Preparedness

  • Shaping: gradual reinforcement of successive approximations toward a complex goal.
  • Biological preparedness: animals learn more easily behaviours aligned with natural predispositions; reinforcement easier than punishment.

Acquisition & Performance in Operant Conditioning

  • Acquisition: reinforcement strengthens the new behaviour.
  • Performance: behaviour performed without the reinforcer after learning.

Placebo Effect (in operant context)

  • Placebo: inert treatment that can produce real improvements due to expectation (mind over matter).
  • Explanations: expectancy effects; negative reinforcement history; conditioning with prior experiences.

Behaviour Modification

  • Based on operant conditioning; long-term change via reinforcement strategies.
  • Steps:
    • Monitor baseline behaviour.
    • Set realistic goals.
    • Agree on reinforcement schedule.
    • Implement and reward small improvements.
    • Gradually remove rewards to assess maintenance.
  • Environment adjustments can aid modification.

Observational Learning (Modeling)

- Definition: learning by watching others and imitating (Bandura & Walters).