Chapter 5 Notes: Supporting Hard Drives and Other Storage Devices

Hard Drive Technologies and Interface Standards

  • A hard disk drive (HDD) is evaluated based on:
    • Physical size
    • Capacity
    • Speed
    • Technologies used inside the drive
    • Interface standards

Technologies and Form Factors of Hard Drives

  • Two primary hardware technologies:
    • Magnetic
    • Solid-state

Magnetic Hard Drives

  • Composed of one or more platters or disks.
  • Platters are stacked and spin in unison inside a sealed metal housing.
  • Firmware manages data reading/writing and communication with the motherboard.
  • Read/write heads are controlled by an actuator.
  • Data is organized in concentric circles called tracks.
  • Tracks are divided into segments called sectors.
  • Modern drives typically use 4096-byte sectors.
  • Form factors:
    • 3.5” for desktops
    • 2.5” for laptops

Solid-State Drives (SSD)

  • Also referred to as solid-state devices.
  • Contain no moving parts.
  • Use nonvolatile memory, similar to USB flash drives.
  • Memory is NAND flash memory.
  • Lifespan is limited by the number of write operations, measured in:
    • TBW (TeraBytes Written)
    • DWPD (Drive Writes Per Day)
  • SSDs vs. Magnetic Drives:
    • SSDs are faster and more reliable.
    • SSDs have longer lifespans.
    • SSDs consume less power.
    • SSDs are more expensive.
  • Popular Form Factors:
    • 2.5” SSD
    • M.2 SSD card
    • PCI Express SSD expansion card

Hybrid Hard Drives

  • Also known as solid-state hybrid drives (SSHD).
  • Combines magnetic and SSD technologies.
  • Magnetic drive stores data permanently.
  • Flash component acts as a buffer to enhance performance.
  • Operating system must support hybrid drives for proper functionality.

Logical Block Addressing and Capacity

  • Low-level formatting:
    • Sector markings are written at the factory
    • Distinct from high-level formatting during OS installation
  • Logical Block Addressing (LBA):
    • Firmware, BIOS/UEFI, and the OS use LBA to address sectors.
    • Drive capacity is determined by block size and the number of blocks.

S.M.A.R.T.

  • Self-Monitoring Analysis and Reporting Technology (S.M.A.R.T.) predicts drive failure.
  • System BIOS/UEFI monitors:
    • Drive performance
    • Temperature
    • Other factors
  • For magnetic drives, S.M.A.R.T. monitors:
    • Disk spin-up time
    • Head distance from disk
    • Mechanical activities
  • A warning message is displayed if S.M.A.R.T. detects potential failure.
  • S.M.A.R.T. can be enabled/disabled in BIOS/UEFI setup.

Interface Standards Used by Hard Drives

  • Four interface standards:
    • IDE (outdated)
    • SCSI (outdated)
    • SATA
    • NVMe

IDE

  • Also known as Parallel ATA (PATA).
  • Used 40-pin data cables.
  • Supported one or two IDE connectors on a motherboard.
  • Two types of IDE cables:
    • Older cable: 40-pin connector with 40 wires
    • Newer cable: 40-pin connector with 80 thinner wires
  • Maximum recommended cable length: 18 inches.

SCSI

  • Small Computer System Interface (SCSI) was used in high-end workstations.
  • Supports up to 7 or 15 SCSI-compliant devices.
  • SCSI host adapter:
    • SCSI expansion card using a PCIe slot
    • Provided external and internal connectors for SCSI devices

SATA

  • Serial ATA (SATA) is the current standard for most hard drives.
  • Uses a serial data path.
  • Each SATA data cable supports a single drive.
  • Three SATA standards:
    • SATA3 or SATA III
    • SATA2 or SATA II
    • SATA1 or SATA I
  • Used by all drive types.
  • Supports hot-swapping (hot-plugging).
  • Connects to motherboard via 7-pin data cable and 15-pin SATA power connector.
  • Motherboards have multiple SATA connectors.
    • Use them in the order specified in the user guide.

SATA Express and eSATA

  • SATA 3.2 revision allows PCIe and SATA to work together (SATA Express).
  • SATA Express uses a new connector.
  • SATA Express isn't as fast as NVMe.
  • External SATA (eSATA) ports can be provided by motherboards or expansion cards for external drives.
  • eSATA uses shielded serial ATA cables, up to 2 meters long.

Purchasing Considerations for SATA

  • SATA standards for drive and motherboard need to match.
  • If standards don't match, the system runs at the slower speed.

NVMe

  • Non-Volatile Memory Express (NVMe) is an interface standard used exclusively by SSDs.
  • Data transfer rates:
    • SATA 3: 6 Gb/sec
    • PCIe 3.0 NVMe: 32 Gb/sec
  • PCIe NVMe interface implementations:
    • PCIe expansion card
    • U.2 slot
    • M.2 port

How to Select and Install Hard Drives

  • Topics include:
    • Selecting a hard drive
    • Installation details for a SATA drive
    • Installing a hard drive in a bay that's too wide
    • Special considerations for laptop hard drive installation
    • Setting up a RAID system

Selecting a Hard Drive

  • Compatibility:
    • Motherboard and hard drive must support the same interface standard.
    • Check the motherboard manual for compatibility.
    • SATA ports are often color-coded to indicate SATA standard support.
    • M.2 slots may support PCIe 3.0, PCIe 2.0, SATA2, SATA3, or USB 3.0.
    • Using an M.2 port with the SATA bus may disable one of the SATA ports.
    • NVMe expansion cards typically use a PCIe x4 version 3.0 slot.
  • Considerations when selecting:
    • Technology (magnetic, SSD, hybrid)
    • Form factor
    • Capacity
    • Data transfer rate (drive interface)
    • Spindle speed (magnetic drives)
    • Cache/buffer size (hybrid drives)
  • Drive manufacturer websites:
    • Kingston Technology (SSD only): kingston.com
    • Samsung (SSD only): samsung.com
    • Seagate Technology (magnetic and SSD): seagate.com
    • Western Digital (magnetic and SSD): wdc.com
    • Toshiba (magnetic and SSD): Toshiba.com

Steps to Install a SATA Drive

  1. Check Jumpers:
    • SATA drives might have jumpers, usually set correctly by the factory.
  2. Power Connectors:
    • Some SATA drives have two power connectors; use only one.
    • Never connect two power cords simultaneously.
  3. Protect User Data:
    • Back up important data and verify the backup.
  4. Know Your Starting Point:
    • Document the system configuration and ensure everything is working properly.
  5. Read Documentation and Prepare Work Area:
    • Read installation instructions and visualize all steps.
    • Protect against ESD and avoid working on carpet.
    • Handle the drive carefully and avoid touching exposed circuitry.
    • Drain static electricity by touching metal for at least 2 seconds.
    • Set the drive component-side up and avoid placing it on the computer case or metal table.
  6. Install the Drive:
    • Shut down and unplug the computer.
    • Choose the bay for the drive.
    • Slide the drive into the bay and secure it with screws on both sides.
    • Connect the correct motherboard SATA connector.
    • Connect a 15-pin SATA or 4-pin Molex power connector.
    • Check all connections and power up the system.
    • Verify the drive is recognized correctly in BIOS/UEFI setup.
  7. Prepare the Hard Drive for First Use:
    • Boot from Windows setup DVD and follow the on-screen directions.
    • If installing a second hard drive, use Windows Disk Management to partition and format it.

Installing a Drive in a Removable Bay

  • Unplug the cage fan from its power source.
  • Turn the handle on each locking device counterclockwise to remove it.
  • Slide the bay to the front and out of the case.
  • Insert the hard drive in the bay, using two screws on each side to secure it.
  • Slide the bay back into the case.
  • Reinstall the locking pins.
  • Plug in the cage fan power cord.

Installing a Small Drive in a Wide Bay

  • Use a universal bay kit to securely fit a smaller drive into a larger bay.
  • The adapter bridges the gap between the drive and bay sides.

Installing an M.2 SSD Card

  1. Check Compatibility: Read the motherboard manual to ensure the board supports the M.2 card type.
  2. Measure Card and Install Standoff:
    • Measure the card length and select the correct screw hole on the M.2 slot.
    • Install a standoff in the appropriate hole.
  3. Slide Card into Slot: Slide the card straight into the slot (not at an upward angle).
  4. Secure Card: Install the screw in the standoff to secure the card to the motherboard.
  5. Verify Recognition: Start the system, enter BIOS/UEFI setup, and confirm the M.2 card is recognized.

Installing a Hard Drive in a Laptop

  • General Guidelines:
    • Refer to the manufacturer's documentation for drive sizes, form factors, and connector types.
    • Be aware of voiding the manufacturer’s warranty.
    • If the old drive has crashed, you will need recovery media to reinstall Windows and drivers.
    • When upgrading to a higher-capacity drive, plan how to transfer data from the old drive.
  • Shopping Considerations:
    • Laptop drives are typically 2.5 or 1.8 inches wide.
    • Some high-end laptops use M.2 SSDs.
    • 2.5” drives generally use the SATA interface.
  • Installation Steps:
    • Power down the system, remove peripherals, and remove the battery pack.
    • Remove the screw that holds the drive in place.
    • Open the laptop lid slightly, turn the laptop on its side, and push the drive out of its bay.
    • Remove the plastic cover from the old drive and move it to the new drive.
    • Insert the new drive into the bay, replace the screw, and power up the system.
    • BIOS/UEFI should recognize the new drive and search for an OS. If it’s a new drive, boot from Windows setup or recovery DVD to install the OS.

Setting Up Hardware RAID

  • RAID (Redundant Array of Inexpensive Disks or Redundant Array of Independent Disks):
    • Configures two or more hard drives to work together as an array.
  • Reasons to use RAID:
    • Improve performance by distributing data across multiple drives.
    • Increase fault tolerance by creating redundant copies of data.

Types of RAID

  • Spanning (JBOD - Just a Bunch Of Disks):
    • Uses two hard drives as a single volume.
    • When the first drive is full, data is written to the second drive.
  • RAID 0 (Striped Volume):
    • Uses two or more physical disks.
    • Data is written evenly across all disks (striping).
  • RAID 1 (Mirroring):
    • Duplicates data from one drive to another for fault tolerance.
  • RAID 5:
    • Requires three or more drives.
    • Stripes data across drives and uses parity checking (no data duplication).
  • RAID 10 (RAID 1+0):
    • Combines RAID 1 and RAID 0.
    • Requires at least 4 disks, with data mirrored across pairs of disks.

How to Implement Hardware RAID

  • Hardware RAID can be set up by using:
    • A RAID-enabled motherboard managed in BIOS/UEFI setup
    • A RAID controller card
  • For best RAID performance:
    • All hard drives in an array should be identical in brand, size, speed, and features.
  • Windows Installation:
    • RAID must be implemented before installing Windows.
  • Steps to install a RAID 5 array (using three matching SATA drives):
    1. Install drives and connect each to the motherboard
    2. Boot the system and enter BIOS/UEFI setup
    3. Verify drives are recognized, select the option to configure SATA, and choose RAID
    4. Reboot the system
    5. Press
    6. Select option 1 to “Create RAID Volume”
    7. Under RAID Level, select RAID 5 (Parity) and set Strip Size value
    8. Enter the size of the volume
    9. Select Create Volume to complete the RAID configuration

NAS Devices and External Storage

  • Hard drives are sometimes stored in external enclosures:
    • To easily expand storage capacity of a single computer.
    • To make hard drive storage available to an entire network.
  • Network Attached Storage (NAS):
    • The enclosure connects to the network via an Ethernet port.
    • Hard drives inside the enclosure might use a SATA connection.
  • Benefits of NAS:
    • Cost-effective.
    • Remote data availability and 24/7 access.
    • Scalable and Flexible.
    • Redundant storage architecture.
    • Automatically backs up to the cloud or other devices.
  • Supporting External Enclosures:
    • Enclosures may contain firmware that supports RAID.
    • Refer to the documentation when replacing a hard drive in an enclosure.
    • If a computer case is overheating, move hard drives to an external enclosure (except the one with the OS).
    • Purchase a SATA controller card with eSATA connectors if:
      • The motherboard eSATA port is not functioning
      • The motherboard does not support a fast SATA standard

SAN Devices and External Storage

  • SAN (Storage Area Network): An array of disks connected to the server through a dedicated network.
  • Offers direct access to storage, similar to a local hard drive.
  • Infrastructure: Dedicated network with fibre-optics, special connecting hardware, and enterprise-level storage systems.
  • Benefits of SAN:
    • Incredibly fast data access.
    • Dedicated network for storage (reduces pressure on LAN).
    • Extensively expandable.
    • Block-level access to files.

Supporting Other Types of Storage Devices

  • This section covers:
    • File systems that other types of storage devices use.
    • The following types of storage devices:
      • Optical discs
      • USB flash drives
      • Memory cards

File Systems Used By Storage Devices

  • File system: Manages data stored on a device.
    • Overall structure used by the OS to name, store, and organize files on a drive.
    • In Windows, each storage device or RAID is assigned a drive letter and called a volume.
  • Formatting: Installing a new file system on a device.
  • Types of file systems:
    • NTFS
    • exFAT
    • FAT32 and FAT
    • CDFS (Compact Disc File System) or UDF (Universal Disk Format)
    • A newer version of UDF is used by DVDs and BDs (Blu-ray discs)

Standards Used By Optical Discs and Drives

  • CDs (compact discs), DVDs (digital versatile discs or digital video discs), and BDs (Blu-ray discs) use similar laser technologies.
  • Tiny lands and pits on the surface represent bits read by a laser beam.
  • Data can be written to:
    • One side of a CD.
    • One or both sides of a DVD or Blu-ray disc.
    • DVD or Blu-ray disc can hold data in two layers on each side.
  • Optical Drives and Burners:
    • Blu-ray drives are backward compatible with DVD and CD technologies.
    • DVD drives are backward compatible with CD technologies.
    • Depending on the drive features, an optical drive might be able to read and write to BDs, DVDs, and CDs.
    • A drive that can write to discs is commonly called a burner.
    • Today’s internal optical drives interface with the motherboard via a SATA connection.
    • An external drive might use an eSATA or USB port.

Installing an Optical Drive

  • Internal optical drives on today’s computer use a SATA interface.
  • An optical drive is usually installed in the drive bay at the top of a desktop case.
  • After installed in the bay, connect the data and power cables.
  • Windows 10/8/7 supports optical drives using its own embedded drives without add-on drivers.

Replacing an Optical Drive on a Laptop

  • For some systems, you will need to first remove the keyboard to expose an optical drive.
  • Replacing optical drives:
    • Shut down the system, unplug the AC adapter, and remove the battery pack.
    • Remove the keyboard (not all laptops require this step).
    • Remove the screw holding DVD drive to the laptop.
    • Slide drive out of the bay and new drive into the bay.
    • Ensure connection with drive connector at the back of the bay.
    • Replace the screw.

Solid-State Storage

  • Solid-state storage includes SSDs, USB flash drives, and memory cards.
  • USB flash drives go by many names:
    • Flash pen drive, jump drive, thumb drive, and key drive.
    • Flash drives might work at USB 2.0 or USB 3.0 speed and use FAT or exFAT file system.
    • Windows 10/8/7 has embedded drivers to support flash drives.
  • Memory cards might be used in:
    • Digital cameras, tablets, smartphones, MP3 players, digital camcorders, etc…
    • Most laptops have memory card slots provided by a built-in smart card reader.
  • Secure Digital (SD) cards are the most popular memory cards.
  • Three standards for capacity used by SD cards:
    • 1.x (regular SD)
    • 2.x (SD High Capacity or SDHC)
    • 3.x (SD eXtended Capacity or SDXC)
  • SD cards come in three physical sizes: full-size, MiniSD, and MicroSD.
  • SDHC and SDXC slots are backward compatible with SD cards.
  • Cannot use:
    • An SDHC card in an SD slot.
    • An SDXC card in an SDHC or SD slot.
  • SD and SDHC cards use FAT file system.
  • SDXC cards use exFAT file system.

Troubleshooting Hard Drives

  • Problems caused by hard drive during the boot can be caused by:
    • Hard drive subsystem.
    • File system on the drive.
    • Files required by Windows when it begins to load.
  • When trying to solve a problem with the boot:
    • Decide if the problem is caused by hardware or software.

Slow Performance

  • One of the most common complaints:
    • Computer is running slowly.
  • The overall performance of a system depends on the individual performances of:
    • The processor, motherboard, memory, and hard drive.
  • To optimize a drive:
    • You can use Windows tools or tools provided by the hard drive manufacturer.
  • Use the Windows Defrag and Optimization tool (dfrgui.exe) to verify that Windows is defragmenting a magnetic drive and trimming an SSD.

Hard Drive Problems During the Boot

  • Hardware problems usually show up at POST.
  • If BIOS/UEFI cannot access the drive, the cause might be due to the drive, data cable, electrical system, motherboard, or a loose connection.
  • Things to do and check before opening case:
    • Check to see if BIOS/UEFI displays a numeric error code or other message during POST.
    • Check BIOS/UEFI setup for errors in the hard drive configuration.
    • Try booting from another bootable media.
    • For a RAID array, use the firmware utility to check the status of each disk in the array and check for errors.
  • If the problem is still not solved, open case and check these things:
    • Remove and reattach all drive cables.
    • If using a RAID or SATA controller card, remove and reseat it or place it in a different slot.
    • Inspect drive for damage.
    • Determine if the hard drive is spinning by listening to it.
    • Check the cable for frayed edges.
    • Check installation manual.
    • S.M.A.R.T. errors mean data should be backed up and drive replaced as soon as possible.
    • Use Windows tools for checking a hard drive.
      • Windows 10/8/7 Startup Repair.
      • chkdsk command.
  • Steps to take to repair an MBR hard drive:
    • Repair the BCD using bootrec /RebuildBCD
    • Repair the boot sector using bootrec /FixBoot
    • Repair the MBR using bootrec /FixMBR
  • Check the drive manufacturer’s web site for diagnostic software.
  • Move the device to a working computer and install it as a second drive.
  • Try these things to clean the drive and get a fresh start:
    • Format a hard drive volume.
    • Use diskpart to start over with a fresh file system.
  • Exchange the three field replaceable units-the data cable, the storage card, and the hard drive.
  • Try connecting the drive data cable to a different SATA connector.
  • Reconnect or swap the drive data cable.
  • Reseat or exchange the drive controller card.
  • Exchange the hard drive for a known good drive.
  • If your drive whines loudly, try replacing it.
  • A bad power supply or a bad motherboard also might cause a disk boot failure.