Comprehensive Geography and Urbanisation Study Notes
Defining Rural and Urban Areas
Geography distinguishes between rural and urban areas based on several specific criteria including population size, density, and physical infrastructure. Rural areas are characterized by a low population, low population density, and a limited number of buildings, typically consisting of villages and farms. In contrast, urban areas possess a high population, high population density, and a significant number of buildings, encompassing towns and cities. The fundamental differences between these landscapes are found in their economics, their physical size, the density of both buildings and people, and the general way of life for their inhabitants.
The Process and Causes of Urbanisation
Urbanisation is defined as the increase in the percentage of people living in urban areas compared to those living in rural areas. This phenomenon is particularly prevalent in Low-Income Countries (s) and Middle-Income Countries (s). There are three primary economic and social reasons for high urbanisation rates: push factors, pull factors, and natural increase. High rates of natural increase occur when the birth rate significantly exceeds the death rate, often due to improved medical care in cities.
Push factors are negative attributes that drive people away from rural lands, including poverty, lack of services, unemployment, drought, and conflict. Pull factors are the attractions of the city that draw people in, such as job availability, better access to services, higher wages, healthcare, and education. Natural increase is further driven by the fact that cities often have a young population, resulting in a naturally high birth rate.
Suburbanisation and Counter-urbanisation
As cities and towns grow, they often expand outwards through a process known as suburbanisation. This movement of people from the inner city to the suburbs leads to the city spreading geographically. The primary causes for this trend include the availability of cheaper and larger housing in suburban areas alongside a perceived better quality of life that is quieter and safer. The effects of suburbanisation include the loss of population in the inner city and an increase in commuting traffic as people travel from the suburbs back to the center for work.
Counter-urbanisation represents an increase in the percentage of people living in rural areas compared to urban areas, leading to the growth of villages and small towns. This trend is often driven by individuals seeking a quieter lifestyle and is made possible by good transport links into the city. Consequently, rural house prices often rise, and cities experience a decline in some segments of their population. This process is often seen in developed countries like the United Kingdom, the United States, and Japan, where growth has slowed and some cities are even declining due to deindustrialisation.
Land Values and Spatial Distribution in Urban Areas
Land values vary significantly within urban areas and generally decline as one moves outwards from the city center. However, relatively high land values can still be found along major roads leading from the center and along ring roads. These specific locations where radial and ring roads cross are known as land-value peaks. Businesses are often willing to pay extra for sites in these locations because they enjoy excellent accessibility.
Data from urban studies indicates that spatial inequality is high; for instance, poverty levels can vary from in outer suburbs to in the inner city, where residents are often struggling. In the Central Business District (), land values are at their peak, leading to high-rise buildings and expensive shops and offices that are highly accessible. Housing figures, such as a statistic regarding specific areas, highlight the density and demand within these zones.
Models of Urban Structure
Urban geography utilizes models such as the Burgess Model and the Hoyt Model to explain the layout of cities. The Burgess Model identifies a core Central Business District () surrounded by concentric rings including the inner city (characterized by old housing, industry, and often deprivation), the inner suburbs, and the outer suburbs (residential areas with gardens and schools at lower density). The outermost layer is the rural-urban fringe, where housing estates are built on the edge of the city where there is more space.
In the Central Business District, one finds expensive land and a range of different things close together. As you move toward the inner city, the physical density remains high, but in the outer suburbs, features are more distant and spread out. The commuter zone or high-class housing often occupies these peripheral areas where land is more available.
The Multiplier Effect in Economic Growth
The multiplier effect is defined as a cycle where an initial investment or improvement leads to further positive economic changes in an area. In a two-marker examination definition, the multiplier effect is when an initial investment creates more jobs and income, which then leads to further economic growth in the area. The cycle proceeds as economic growth creates more labor and services, which leads to population growth, which in turn fuels further economic growth. This expansion of the tertiary and secondary sectors is a key factor affecting the pace of urbanisation.
Global Trends and the Emergence of Megacities
A megacity is defined as a city with a population of more than people. The emergence of megacities is a current trend in developing and emerging countries such as Nigeria, Brazil, and India, where urbanisation is happening very rapidly. Megacities grow due to high migration rates, economic opportunities, high natural increase, and expanding urban boundaries. Examples of prominent megacities include Lagos, Rio de Janeiro, Hong Kong, Mumbai, Cairo, and Tokyo.
Rapid urban growth in these regions leads to several severe problems. Housing shortages result in the creation of slums or squatter settlements which suffer from overcrowding, limited clean water, and poor sanitation. Transport issues include severe congestion and long commute times due to poor public transport. Environmental problems include air, water, and noise pollution, alongside uncollected waste. Social issues include crime, unemployment, inequality, and extreme pressure on schools and hospitals.
Case Study: Lagos, Nigeria
Lagos is a megacity in a developing country with a population of approximately people. Its growth is driven by rural-urban migration and natural increase, with people seeking jobs in the port, oil industry, finance, and services. A major challenge in Lagos is the squatter settlement of akokor, which is built on wooden stilts. The area is overcrowded, has no clean water, lacks a sewage system, and faces high fire risks.
Economically, of the population works in the informal economy as street sellers, repair workers, or waste pickers. These jobs offer poor pay and no legal rights, and because they are not registered, the city receives no tax revenue from them. Traffic congestion is severe, with residents often spending commuting daily on narrow, overcrowded roads. Environmentally, the city faces water pollution from sewage and air pollution from old cars, while producing of waste daily. Solutions being implemented include the Bus Rapid Transit () system to reduce congestion and the Eko Atlantic project, which is a new coastal city with modern infrastructure. Additionally, floating school innovations were attempted, though they have seen mixed success, such as those that collapsed.
Case Study: Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
Rio de Janeiro is a megacity in an emerging country with a population of . Its growth is fueled by migration from Northeast Brazil and jobs in the ports, industry, and tourism. Major challenges include the favelas, such as Rocinha, which are illegal hillside housing settlements with high landslide risks, poor sanitation, illegal electricity connections, overcrowding, and high crime rates involving gangs.
Transport is congested because the surrounding mountains limit road space. Environmental issues include sewage flowing into Guanabara Beach and waste piling on hillsides. Social inequality is high between the rich and poor areas, with unequal access to healthcare and education. Solutions include the Favela Bairro project, which provides clean water, drainage, paved roads, and schools, as well as legalizing homes, although this is costly. Other improvements include the Alemão cable car for better access and the UPP pacification program, which has reduced gang violence in some favelas.
Case Study: Hong Kong
Hong Kong is a megacity in a developed country with a population of people. It grew as a global financial hub and trade port city with many tertiary and quaternary jobs. Its biggest challenge is a housing shortage driven by land scarcity and mountainous terrain, leading to the world's highest rents. Residents often live in "nano flats" or cage homes, and there are long waiting lists for public housing.
Transport congestion involves crowded MTR systems and busy roads with limited land for expansion. Pollution is a major concern, with air pollution coming from traffic and factories in nearby Shenzhen, alongside waste disposal problems and high energy consumption. Solutions involve heavy reliance on land reclamation to create new space, expanding public housing, world-class MTR extensions, and new waste charging and recycling policies.
Economic Sectors and Sector Employment
Economic activity is divided into four sectors. The Primary sector involves the extraction of raw materials and the production of food. The Secondary sector involves manufacturing and making goods from raw materials. The Tertiary sector provides services to people and businesses. The Quaternary sector consists of knowledge-based industries involving high-tech research and the provision of expertise.
As a country develops, sector employment changes. This is caused by mechanization replacing workers in primary and secondary jobs, education improvements allowing more people to work in services or IT, and investment in technology fueling the quaternary sector. Globalisation also plays a role as companies move factories to cheaper countries, and urbanisation creates more jobs in service and factory settings.
Globalisation and Employment Types
Globalisation is the process by which countries become more interdependent through the exchange of goods, services, ideas, and cultures. Improved transport and technology have made it faster and cheaper for goods and information to move around the world. In emerging countries like Brazil and Nigeria, this has led to more jobs as global companies invest, though local businesses may struggle to compete with large global corporations.
Employment within these economies is categorized as formal or informal. Informal employment consists of jobs that are not registered or legal, where no tax is paid and workers have no rights (e.g., shoe-shiners). These jobs are often a result of rapid urbanisation and a lack of education or formal job opportunities. Formal employment consists of official jobs with contracts and benefits (e.g., nurses, teachers, and office workers). While informal work is easy to enter and provides flexible income, it offers no protection, low pay, unsafe conditions, and provides no tax revenue for city investment.