Chapter 19: Safe for Democracy - The United States and World War I
Chapter 19: Safe for Democracy: The United States and World War I (1916–1920)
Focus Questions for Study
How did Progressive presidents promote the expansion of American power overseas?
What factors led to United States involvement in World War I?
How did the United States mobilize its resources and public opinion for the war effort?
What were the effects of World War I on race relations within the United States?
Why is the year 1919 considered a transformative year for the United States and the world?
America's Emergence as a Global Power
Economic Supremacy at the Dawn of the 20th Century:
European Commentary:
Louis Bosc (French economist): Warned of impending American dominance over the "universe."
Brooks Adams (grandson of John Quincy Adams): Praised the "velocity and proportions" of the new "American supremacy," characterizing the U.S. as a "gigantic and growing empire."
W. T. Stead (English writer, 1902): Published "The Americanisation of the World, or the Trend of the Twentieth Century," anticipating the U.S. would become "the greatest of world powers" due to its "exuberant energies."
Territorial Expansion and Imperial Holdings by 1900:
Hawaii (conquered 1893): Expanded U.S. territory halfway across the Pacific.
Post-Spanish-American War: Colonization of the Philippines and Puerto Rico.
Acquisitions: Guam, American Samoa, and the Virgin Islands (in 1917).
Population under rule: These acquisitions added over 7 million new people.
Comparison to European Empires: Despite these holdings, American overseas territory remained significantly smaller than that of Britain (over 300 million people) and France (nearly 50 million subjects in Asia and Africa).
Distinct Nature of the American Empire:
Continental Expansion: The U.S. vastly expanded its territory on the North American continent since its founding through a combination of American Indian expropriation, land purchases from European empires, and the war with Mexico, more than tripling its size in the first half of the 19^{th} century.
Resource Abundance: By the early 20^{th} century, the U.S. was a continent-spanning nation with a growing population and rich mineral and agricultural resources, fueling extraordinary economic growth.
U.S. Industrial and Economic Dominance (by 1913/1914):
1913 Production:
Petroleum: 65\% of the world's supply.
Copper: 56\% of the world's supply.
Coal: 39\% of the world's supply.
Iron Ore: 36\% of the world's supply.
1914 Manufacturing: Produced more than one-third of the world's manufactured goods.
Global Standing: The U.S. became the leading industrial power, though Britain still dominated world banking and the British pound remained the major currency of international trade.
"American Invasion" and Foreign Policy Principles
European Concerns: Europeans complained of an "American invasion" through products like steel, oil, agricultural equipment, and consumer goods, fearing cultural and economic overwhelm.
A British writer in 1901 noted that the "chief new features of London life"—telephone, portable camera, phonograph, electric street car, automobile, typewriter—were all areas where "the American maker is supreme."
U.S. Economic Focus vs. European Colonialism:
Intensified U.S. economic competition spurred European countries' quest for overseas colonial control.
Due to its own vast continental territory, the U.S. focused on creating a favorable economic climate globally for American goods and trade, aligning with W. T. Stead's observation that American supremacy was rooted in a "single-minded commitment to the pursuit of wealth."
Brooks Adams argued the U.S. "must be brought into competition with rivals at the ends of the earth."
Formulation of Modern American Foreign Policy:
In the two decades after 1900, foundational principles of American foreign policy were established.
The "Open Door" Policy: Emphasized the free flow of trade, investment, information, and culture as a key relation principle.
Woodrow Wilson's Stance: Advocated that "Since the manufacturer insists on having the world as a market, the flag of his nation must follow him and the doors of nations which are closed against him must be battered down."
Foreign Policy Rhetoric of Freedom:
American foreign policy (including military intervention) was often framed in the language of freedom and democracy, rather than solely strategic or economic self-interest.
A strong belief in America's historic destiny and the righteousness of its ideals allowed leaders to view the U.S. as both a rising great power and a global symbol of freedom.
Woodrow Wilson and Liberal Internationalism
Wilson's Vision: Articulated a vision of America's global role, known as liberal internationalism.
Core Conviction: Economic and political progress are interdependent; increased American investment and trade abroad would inevitably lead to greater worldwide freedom.
Dual Interpretation: This conviction sometimes served as a justification for American power and self-interest, but also inspired genuine efforts to promote freedom globally.
Shift in Approach: Marked a departure from the 19^{th}-century tradition of promoting freedom through example, moving towards active intervention to reshape the world in the American image.
World War I as a Test: U.S. involvement in WWI became the initial major test of Wilson's belief that American power could "make the world safe for democracy."
Progressive Support for the War: Most Progressives supported U.S. participation, believing it offered an opportunity to spread Progressive values globally.
Repression of Dissent:
The government began to view critics of war involvement as enemies of democracy and freedom, not merely as citizens with differing opinions.
This led to "sweeping repressions of the right to dissent," indicating that the war, instead of exporting Progressivism, arguably damaged it domestically.
Chronology of Key Events
1903: United States secures the Panama Canal Zone.
1904: Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine.
1905: The Niagara movement established.
1907: Gentlemen's Agreement with Japan.
1909: National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) organized.
1910: Mexican Revolution begins.
1914–1919: World War I.
1915: Lusitania sinks.
1916: Madison Grant's The Passing of the Great Race published; Randolph Bourne's "Trans-National America" published.
1917: Zimmermann Telegram intercepted; United States enters the war; Espionage Act passed; Russian Revolution.
1918: Woodrow Wilson's "Fourteen Points" speech; Eugene V. Debs convicted under the Espionage Act.
1918–1920: Worldwide flu epidemic.
1919: Eighteenth Amendment ratified; Versailles Treaty signed.
1919–1920: Red Scare.
1920: Senate rejects the Versailles Treaty; Nineteenth Amendment ratified.
1921: Tulsa race riot.