Bhakti-Sufi Traditions: Changes in Religious Beliefs and Devotional Texts (c. 8th to 18th Century)

^{Reconstructing the Religious Landscape of the Mid-First Millennium}

• ^{By the mid-$1^{st}$ millennium CE, the Indian subcontinent was characterized by various religious structures including stupas, monasteries, and temples.}

• ^{Religious beliefs and practices are reconstructed from textual traditions like the Puranas, which took their present shape around this time, and through compositions by poet-saints.}

• ^{Poet-saints expressed themselves orally in regional languages used by common people, and their compositions were often set to music and compiled by disciples after the saint’s death.}

• ^{These traditions were fluid; devotees elaborated on, modified, or abandoned ideas based on changing political, social, or cultural contexts.}

• ^{Historians utilize hagiographies (biographies of saints written by followers) which, while not always literally accurate, reveal how devotees perceived these figures.}

^{The Concept of ‑Great‑ and ‑Little‑ Traditions}

• ^{Sociologist Robert Redfield coined these terms in the $20^{th}$ century to describe peasant societies.}

• ^{‑Great‑ Tradition: Rituals and customs emanating from dominant social categories like priests and rulers.}

• ^{‑Little‑ Tradition: Local practices followed by peasants that did not necessarily correspond to the Great Tradition.}

• ^{Both traditions changed over time through interaction, though many scholars find the terms hierarchical and use quotation marks to indicate discomfort with the hierarchy.}

^{A Mosaic of Religious Beliefs and the Integration of Cults}

• ^{This period saw an increased visibility of deities like Vishnu, Shiva, and the Goddess in sculpture and texts.}

• ^{Integration Process $1$: Disseminating Brahmanical ideas through the composition and preservation of Puranic texts in simple Sanskrit verse, accessible to women and Shudras who were excluded from Vedic learning.}

• ^{Integration Process $2$: Brahmanas accepting and reworking beliefs from other social categories. This created a dialogue between ‑Great‑ Sanskritic Puranic traditions and ‑Little‑ traditions.}

• ^{Jagannatha Cult at Puri: In Orissa, the local deity Jagannatha (Lord of the World) was identified as a form of Vishnu by the $12^{th}$ century. The image continues to be made of wood by local tribal specialists.}

• ^{Goddess Cults: Local goddesses, often worshipped as stones smeared with ochre, were incorporated into the Puranic framework as wives of major gods (e.g., Lakshmi as wife of Vishnu, Parvati as wife of Shiva).}

^{Tension and Conflict between Vedic, Puranic, and Tantric Traditions}

• ^{Tantric Practices: Widespread across the subcontinent, open to both men and women, and often ignored differences of caste and class within a ritual context. These influenced Shaivism and Buddhism.}

• ^{Vedic vs. Puranic Divergence: Vedic deities like Agni, Indra, and Soma became marginal, while Vishnu, Shiva, and the Goddess became supreme. However, the Vedas remained revered as authoritative.}

• ^{Nature of Conflict: Vedic traditionalists condemned practices involving ecstatic devotion or those that bypassed Vedic sacrifices. Tantric practitioners often ignored Vedic authority. Devotees also competed to declare their chosen deity (Shiva or Vishnu) as supreme.}

• ^{Relations with Buddhism and Jainism: Often fraught with tension and competition for royal patronage.}

^{Early Bhakti Movements in Tamil Nadu: Alvars and Nayanars}

• ^{Foundations: Emerged around the $6^{th}$ century. Alvars (immersed in devotion to Vishnu) and Nayanars (devotees of Shiva) traveled singing hymns in Tamil.}

• ^{Shrines: They identified specific shrines as the homes of their deities, which later became major temple centers and pilgrimage sites.}

• ^{Caste Attitudes: These movements included Alvars and Nayanars from diverse backgrounds (Brahmanas, artisans, cultivators, and even ‑untouchables‑). These movements are seen as protests against or reforms of the caste system.}

• ^{The Nalayira Divyaprabandham: An anthology of the $12$ Alvars' compositions, compiled in the $10^{th}$ century and often called the ‑Tamil Veda,‑ equating its importance to the four Sanskrit Vedas.}

• ^{Tevaram: A collection of poems by Appar, Sambandar, and Sundarar, compiled and classified in the $10^{th}$ century based on music.}

• ^{Women Devotees: Andal (an Alvar) expressed her love for Vishnu through verse. Karaikkal Ammaiyar (a devotee of Shiva) adopted extreme asceticism. Both renounced social obligations, challenging patriarchal norms.}

• ^{State Patronage: Chola rulers ($9^{th}$ to $13^{th}$ centuries) supported these traditions by granting land and building massive temples (Chidambaram, Thanjavur, Gangaikondacholapuram). Rulers like Parantaka I consecrated metal images of saints like Appar and Sambandar in temples around $945$ CE.}

^{The Virashaiva Tradition of Karnataka}

• ^{Leadership: Led by Basavanna ($1106-1168$), a Brahmana minister in the Kalachuri court.}

• ^{Followers: Known as Virashaivas (heroes of Shiva) or Lingayats (wearers of the linga).}

• ^{Practices: Men wear a small linga in a silver case on the left shoulder. They revere wandering monks called jangama.}

• ^{Beliefs: They believe in union with Shiva after death without rebirth. Consequently, they bury their dead instead of performing cremation.}

• ^{Social Reform: They challenged caste pollution, the theory of rebirth, and Brahmanical social order. They encouraged post-puberty marriage and widow remarriage.}

• ^{Literature: Knowledge of this tradition comes from ‑vachanas‑ (sayings) composed in Kannada.}

^{Religious Developments in North India}

• ^{Context: Prior to the $14^{th}$ century, there is no evidence of compositions similar to the Alvars/Nayanars. The region was dominated by Rajput states where Brahmanas held high status.}

• ^{Alternative Leaders: Naths, Jogis, and Siddhas, often from artisanal backgrounds (like weavers), gained ground. They questioned Vedic authority and spoke in common regional languages.}

• ^{Impact of Islam: The arrival of the Turks and the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate in the $13^{th}$ century undermined Rajput and Brahmana power, leading to the rise of Sufism.}

^{Islamic Traditions and the Fabric of Faith}

• ^{Historical Timeline: Arab merchants arrived in the $1^{st}$ millennium. Muhammad Qasim conquered Sind in $711$ CE. The Delhi Sultanate arose in the $13^{th}$ century, followed by the Mughals in the $16^{th}$ century.}

• ^{Shari’a: The law governing the Muslim community based on the Qur’an and Hadis (traditions/sayings of the Prophet). Secondary sources include qiyas (reasoning by analogy) and ijma (consensus).}

• ^{Zimmi: Status meaning ‑protected,‑ granted to Jews, Christians, and later Hindus under Muslim rule. They paid the jizya tax in exchange for protection.}

• ^{Flexible Ruling Policies: Mughal rulers like Akbar and Aurangzeb provided land grants and tax exemptions to various non-Muslim religious institutions (Temples, Churches, Monasteries).}

^{Popular Practice of Islam and Mosque Architecture}

• ^{Five Pillars of Islam: Belief in one God Allah and Prophet Muhammad as messenger (shahada); prayer five times daily (namaz/salat); alms-giving (zakat); fasting during Ramzan (sawm); and pilgrimage to Mecca (hajj).}

• ^{Local Blends: Sectarian differences (Sunni, Shi‘a) and local customs influenced practice. The Khojahs (Ismaili Shi‘a) used ginan (devotional poems) in local languages. Malabar Muslims adopted Malayalam and matriliny.}

• ^{Mosque Architecture: Universal features include orientation towards Mecca (mihrab and minbar). Local variations include roofs (the shikhara-inspired roof in Kerala or wooden architecture in Kashmir) and building materials (brick in the Atiya mosque, Mymensingh, $1609$).}

• ^{Community Terms: Terms like ‑Muslim‑ were rare. Migrants were often called Turushka (Turks), Tajika (Tajikistan), Parashika (Persia), or the derogatory mlechchha (outsiders/non-caste society).}

^{The Evolution of Sufism: Institutions and Practices}

• ^{Origin: Early mystics known as sufis (tasawwuf) protested the materialism of the Caliphate through asceticism and devotion to God and the Prophet.}

• ^{Khanqah: The hospice which served as the center of the community, controlled by a teaching master (Shaikh, Pir, or Murshid).}

• ^{Silsila: Literally a ‑chain‑ representing a spiritual genealogy linking the master to the Prophet Muhammad.}

• ^{Dargah: The tomb-shrine of a Shaikh which became a site of pilgrimage (ziyarat), especially during the urs (death anniversary), signifying the soul’s union with God.}

• ^{Ba-shari’a vs. Be-shari’a: Ba-shari’a sufi complied with the law, while Be-shari’a (Qalandars, Madaris, etc.) defied it through mendicancy and radical asceticism.}

^{The Chishti Silsila in the Subcontinent}

• ^{Influence: The most influential order in India, arriving in the late $12^{th}$ century. They adapted to Indian devotional traditions.}

• ^{Major Teachers: Shaikh Muinuddin Sijzi ($1235$, Ajmer), Khwaja Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki ($1235$, Delhi), Shaikh Fariduddin Ganj-i Shakar ($1265$, Ajodhan), Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya ($1325$, Delhi), and Shaikh Nasiruddin Chiragh-i Dehli ($1356$, Delhi).}

• ^{Life in the Khanqah: Shaikh Nizamuddin’s hospice included a jama’at khana (hall), an open kitchen (langar) run on unasked-for charity (futuh), and attracted diverse visitors including Hindu jogis.}

• ^{Ziyarat and Qawwali: Pilgrimage to Ajmer (‑Gharib Nawaz‑) was immensely popular. Akbar visited $14$ times between $1568$ and $1580$. Qawwali, featuring mystical chants and the qaul (introduced by Amir Khusrau), was used to evoke divine ecstasy (sama‘).}

• ^{Language: Chishtis used Hindavi and local dialects. Examples include the prem-akhyan ‑Padmavat‑ by Malik Muhammad Jayasi and Dakhani poems (lurinama, shadinama) sung by women in the Deccan.}

• ^{State Relations: While maintaining moral authority through austerity, Chishtis accepted unsolicited grants (inam and auqaf). Conflicts occasionally arose over courtly rituals like prostration.}

^{New Devotional Paths: Kabir, Guru Nanak, and Mirabai}

• ^{Kabir ($14^{th}-15^{th}$ centuries): His poetry is found in the Kabir Bijak, Kabir Granthavali, and Adi Granth Sahib. He used a variety of terms for the Divine (Allah, Alakh, Brahman). His ‑ulatbansi‑ (upside-down) poems used paradoxes to describe Ultimate Reality. He is claimed by both Hindus and Muslims.}

• ^{Baba Guru Nanak ($1469-1539$): Born in Nankana Sahib. He advocated nirguna bhakti and rejected external rituals (idol worship, sacrifices). He taught through hymns (shabad) in Punjabi. He established the practice of congregational worship (sangat) and appointed Guru Angad as successor. The Guru Granth Sahib includes his hymns and those of others (Kabir, Baba Farid).}

• ^{Khalsa Panth: Established by Guru Gobind Singh in the late $17^{th}$ century, defining five symbols: uncut hair, a dagger, a pair of shorts, a comb, and a steel bangle.}

• ^{Mirabai ($15^{th}-16^{th}$ centuries): A Rajput princess who rejected her husband and society to worship Krishna. Her preceptor was Raidas, a leather worker, signifying a challenge to caste. Her bhajans remain popular in Rajasthan and Gujarat.}

^{Historical Reconstruction of Religious Traditions}

• ^{Textual Sources for Sufism:}

  1. ^{Treatises/Manuals: e.g., Kashf-ul-Mahjub by Ali bin Usman Hujwiri (died c. $1071$).}

  2. ^{Malfuzat (Conversations): e.g., Fawa’id-al-Fu’ad (Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya's conversations recorded by Amir Hasan Sijzi).}

  3. ^{Maktubat (Letters): e.g., Maktubat-i Imam Rabbani by Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi (d. $1624$).}

  4. ^{Tazkiras (Biographical Accounts): e.g., Siyar-ul-Auliya and Akhbar-ul-Akhyar.}

• ^{Challenges: Historians must navigate styles ranging from simple vachanas to ornate Persian farmans, acknowledging the dynamic and changing nature of religious traditions.}

^{Questions & Discussion}

• ^{Source $1$: A composition by Tondaradippodi (Alvar) suggests that Vishnu prefers ‑servants‑ born as outcastes over ‑Chaturvedin‑ Brahmanas who lack devotion.}

• ^{Source $2$: Appar (Nayanar) questions the use of gotra and kula (lineage), urging listeners to take refuge in Shiva.}

• ^{Source $3$: Karaikkal Ammaiyar describes herself as a ‑Pey‑ (demoness) with bulging veins and white teeth, contrasting traditional feminine beauty while wandering the forest of Alankatu where Shiva dances.}

• ^{Source $4$: Basavanna critiques ritual inconsistency, noting people pour milk on stone serpents but kill real ones, and offer food to images while turning away hungry servants of God.}

• ^{Source $5$: Emperor Akbar’s farman ($1598$) allows the building of a church in Kambayat (Khambat) for the Society of Jesus.}

• ^{Source $6$: Aurangzeb’s letter ($1661-1662$) to a Jogi named Anand Nath Jio expresses respect, sending a cloak and $25$ rupees as an offering.}

• ^{Source $7$: Princess Jahanara ($1643$) records her pilgrimage to Ajmer, rubbing her face with dust at the threshold and circumambulating Muinuddin Chishti’s tomb seven times.}

• ^{Source $8$: The ‑Charkhanama‑ is a sufi song set to the spinning wheel, incorporating zikr (remembrance) into daily labor (grinding/spinning).}

• ^{Source $9$: Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya ($1313$) declines a gift of gardens and land from a ruler, citing that spiritual masters do not engage in such worldly property management.}

• ^{Source $10$: Kabir argues that there is only one God called by many names (Allah, Ram, etc.), and that distinctions in religious killing (goats vs. cows) are tragic errors of disputation.}

• ^{Source $11$: Mirabai expresses that the Rana (her husband/king) cannot harm her because she is protected by her love for God, indicating a defiance of royal and marital authority.}