A.1 Training

Training vs Overtraining vs Overreaching

• Training: Systematic, repeated performance of structured exercise sessions over a period of time, with the achievement of a specific goal in mind.

  • Type, duration, frequency, and intensity will differ depending on what the goal is.

  • Crucial for improvement but is detrimental if the wrong training is completed.

• Overtraining: Athlete attempts to do more training than they can physically and/or mentally tolerate over a prolonged period.

  • Performance and health can deteriorate significantly.

  • Can become a career-threatening problem.

• Overreaching: An athlete places stress on their body that is beyond their current limit of tolerance, but only for a short period of time.

  • Short-term decline in performance may be observed, with full recovery taking from several days to several weeks.

  • If coupled with appropriate recovery, overreaching can be a useful tool in maximizing the training response.

Various Methods of Training

Flexibility Training

– the stretching of muscles, tendons, and other connection tissue for the purpose of increased range of motion

• Static – muscle is stretched until mild discomfort and held.

• Active – muscle is held statically in the stretched position via contraction of the opposing muscle.

• Dynamic – target muscles moved in a controlled fashion using dynamic movements through the full range of motion.

• Ballistic – a repeated bouncing motion at the point of peak stretch, although can increase injury.

• Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation (PNF) – static stretch followed by an isometric contraction for approximately ten seconds, followed by relaxing the muscle and stretching it again.

Strength and Resistance Training

– making use of the gym equipment and using external resistance to improve muscular strength and endurance.

Circuit Training

– short time spent on many different types of exercises. (High intensity)

Continuous Training

– aerobic training for long periods of time which could be an hour-long jog or an extensive cycle.

Cross-Training

– using various methods of training in a single session.

Interval Training

– Training that uses alternating short, high-intensity bursts of speed with slower, recovery phases throughout a workout.

• Interval training can be specifically designed for a particular type of athlete when they want to improve speed and stamina.

• Intervals can be worked into a cycling/swimming program, a running program, or circuit training.

Fartlek Training

– a continuous training session of running will involve quick bursts of speed, with slower running as the recovery period.

• Fartlek is a Swedish invention that literally translates to 'speed play'.

• It aims to combine continuous training with interval training, where an individual or team will resonate from fast running to slower running in cycles.

Plyometric Training

– focuses on developing explosive power by utilizing stretch-shortening cycle movements.

• It involves rapid, powerful movements that combine a lengthening (eccentric) muscle contraction followed immediately by a shortening (concentric) contraction.

  • Imagine jumping off the ground and then quickly pushing off to jump even higher.

Overtraining

Overtraining: undertaking a prolonged period of training that exceeds what the athlete can physically or mentally tolerate.

Possible Indicators

• Performance: A sudden and persistent decrease in athletic performance, even after adjustments to training or rest periods.

• Physiological

  • Resting heart rate: May increase, but not a reliable indicator as it can be caused by other factors.

  • Muscle soreness: Chronic muscle soreness that doesn't improve with rest, potentially due to excessive cytokine release.

  • Reduced immune function: Increased risk of infections, but not always present.

  • Sleep disturbance: Difficulty falling asleep, frequent waking, and restless sleep due to fatigue, soreness, and hormonal changes.

• Other

  • Fatigue: A defining characteristic of OTS, likely due to changes in brain chemistry, hormones, and muscle metabolism.

  • Decreased appetite: Another potential effect of altered brain chemistry.

Periodization to Optimize Performance

Periodization: is the organization of training throughout a season so that an optimal physiological and psychological peak can be reached. In its simplest form periodization consists of 3 stages:

1. The Transition Phase (Post-Season)

• Goal: Allow for physical and mental recovery after competition.

• Activities: Low-impact exercises are different from regular training to maintain fitness while promoting relaxation.

2. The Preparation Phase (Pre-Season)

• Goal: Develop the athlete's physical, technical, and tactical skills for peak performance in competition.

• Sub-phases

  • General Preparatory Phase: Focuses on building a strong foundation in fitness and basic skills.

    • Specific Preparatory Phase: Becomes more sport-specific, refining skills and tactics. May include low-key competitions for assessment.

3. The Competition Phase

• Goal:Maintains fitness, refine skills and tactics, and gain competition experience

• Focus

  • Reduced training volume compared to the preparation phase.

    • Emphasis on perfecting sport-specific skills and competition strategy.

    • Participating in competitive events.

Breaking Down Training Phases

Microcycle (Weekly)

• The foundation of an athlete's training program.

• Includes all training and recovery sessions for a week.

• Each session has a specific goal contributing to the current training phase.

• Plays a crucial role in achieving the overall training goals.

Mesocycle (Multiple Weeks)

• A focused training block is designed for a specific goal within a phase.

• Consists of multiple microcycles (e.g., a 3-week mesocycle would have 3 microcycles).

• Allows athletes to achieve specific training goals that contribute to the entire program's objectives.

Macrocycle (Entire Season/Year)

• The athlete's entire training program for a season or year.

• Encompasses all training phases, mesocycles, and microcycles.

• Typically planned by starting with the main competition and working backward.

• More specific goals (mesocycles and microcycles) are then defined within the macrocycle framework.

A.2 Environmental factors and physical performance

Cellular Metabolism and the Production of Heat

The production of heat in the human body;

• All energy originates from the sun as light energy.

• Chemical reactions in plants convert light into stored chemical energy.

• We obtain energy by eating the plants or animals containing the energy.

• The body utilizes oxygen and food to produce energy - the reaction is dependent on the mixture of macro and micronutrients in the presence of oxygen.

• Energy metabolism is controlled by many hormones including insulin, glucagon, adrenaline, and growth hormones.

• Basal metabolic rate: amount of energy expended daily at rest, release of this energy is sufficient only for basic daily routine.

Cellular metabolism (metabolic rate): the chemical reactions taking place in human cells that are responsible for the maintenance of life.

• Humans get energy from food, which is chemically released within the cells as energy. This energy is stored in bodily tissues as a more dense energy compound called adenosine triphosphate (ATP).

  • The splitting of ATP is what provides muscles with energy to contract.

• Heat is a byproduct of metabolism: to get rid of the heat, it must be transferred away from the core, and be redistributed to the skin, where it can be lost to the environment.

  • When metabolism increases, more heat is produced.

  • When metabolism decreases, less heat is produced.

• Humans require ENERGY to:

  • Produce heat to maintain the internal body temperature at around 37°C.

  • Produce force (mechanical work) during muscle contraction.

Muscle contraction is about 20 percent efficient, with around 80% of this energy released as heat which must be removed from the body to avoid heat storage and too much of an increase in body temperature through; (1) Conduction, (2) Convection, (3) Radiation & (4) Evaporation

ATP exists in every living tissue, and its breakdown (aka catabolism) gives energy for all life functions eg. action of the liver, and brain, and contraction of muscle tissue.

• The muscular-skeletal system through catabolic reactions converts biochemical energy from organic molecules into ‘mechanical’ energy (muscle contraction) and then ultimately to heat energy (ATP).

Core body temperature: the temperature deep within the body.

Shell body temperature: the temperature near the body surface.

• Depending on the environmental temperature, shell temperature can be 1-6 degrees Celsius lower than core temp.

• We can regulate our body temperature through temperature sensors such as the skin.

• The control center that functions as the body’s thermostat is the hypothalamus.

Normal Physiological Range

• The average normal body temperature is generally accepted as 37°C.

  • Some studies have shown that the "normal" body temperature can have a wide range, from 36.1°C to 37.2°C.

  • Exercise - heat exposure should be between 90-100 minutes per day.

    • Signs of heat acclimatization - low heart rate, low core temperature, higher sweat rate.

Thermoregulation

• Thermal receptors are present in the hypothalamus and the skin. They have sensors for heat and cold.

• Thermal effectors respond to the stimuli sensed in the receptors. They are the skeletal muscles, smooth muscles, and sweat glands.

In the COLD:

• muscles shiver

• skin blood supply is reduced (vasoconstriction)

• prolonged exposure to cold results in an increase in metabolic heat production due to the increased output of thyroxin from the thyroid gland and epinephrine from the adrenal medulla

In the HEAT:

• skin blood supply increased (vasodilation)

• sweating

Humidity and Wind

Hot Environments

• The body uses the principles of conduction, convection, radiation, and evaporation.

• Exercise in heat or humid conditions reduces the thermal gradient between skin and environment and thus between the skin and core.

• Humidity imposes a heat loss barrier to the evaporative process and this severely limits our ability to perform. This then puts more pressure on the circulatory system and the result is an elevated heart rate.

When exercising:

• If exercising (which produces heat) or entering a steamy sauna, skin blood vessels would vasodilate to direct that warm blood towards the skin surface so heat can be dispersed.

• During heavy work, muscles need more blood flow, which reduces the amount of blood available to flow to the skin and release the heat.

In the wind:

• Wind increases the speed of evaporation as it carries the sweat particles away. The wind increases the thermal gradient.

Formation of Sweat and the Sweat Response

• Sweating causes a decrease in the core temperature of the body (sweating cools the body).

  • Heat stored in the blood is sent to the skin by vasoconstriction directing it so the heat can escape the body and evaporate away from the skin, down a concentration gradient.

• Sweating is more common in hot environments as the body, in use of homeostasis, wishes to keep its temperature at the optimal temperature.

  • It is more persistent in humid climates as the rate of evaporation is less due to the density of water in the air surrounding the performer.

• Sweating rate depends on the following:

  • the intensity of the activity

  • environmental conditions

  • fitness

  • acclimatization

  • type and amount of clothing worn

Prolonged Exercise in Heat

Physiological Adaptations - Maximal sweat rates can reach 2-3 L per hour which means:

• Loss of fluid

• Loss of body mass

• Decrease in plasma volume

• Altered electrolyte balance

• Less urine production due to the retention of sodium and fluids

• Decreased central blood volume and stroke

• Decreased stroke volume

• Increased heart rate and thus more cardiac work

Health Risks Associated with Exercising in the Heat

Treating Heat-Related Disorders

Prevention:

• Acclimatize to heat gradually

• Accounting for both heat and humidity

• Continuous rehydration

• Avoidance of salt tablets

• Weighing of athletes before and after practice

• Avoiding wet or heavy clothing

• Identification of risks in both the environment and individual participants

• Provision of frequent breaks

• Awareness of the signs of heat exhaustion

• On particularly hot and/or humid days, these steps should all be taken with care to ensure that heat-related

• Disorders do not occur in athletes

Treatment:

• The use of shade and cool places for recovery

• Ice baths or ice jackets

• Saline drips

How an Athlete Should Acclimatize to Heat Stress

• It takes 5 to 10 days for an athlete to adjust.

• There should be lower-intensity training at first.

• Train in a climate-controlled indoor area.

• Athletes should train at the same time of day as their competition.

• In a hot climate, athletes should wear light and breathable uniforms.

• Athletes should lower core temperature and heart rate to encourage sweating.

• Athletes should work for 90 to 100 minutes per session.

Heat Acclimatization

– biological changes that reduce physiological strain, to improve physiological capability and comfort when exercising in hot conditions, as well as to prevent heat-related injuries.

Physiological Adaptations

• Increased plasma volume (stroke volume and oxygen levels increase).

• Increased sweat response - the onset of sweat, diluted sweat electrolytes, revved impulses to working muscles, decreased drive for blood flow to skin + moved blood to working muscles.

• Reduced rate of muscle glycogen utilization (blood supply, SV, and cardiac output.

• Increased hemoglobin concentration, muscle myoglobin in muscle cells, muscle cell mitochondria, and oxidative enzymes in miłochondria.

Core Temperature in Cold Environments

• Shivering: uses energy to try to boost the heat production

• Peripheral Vasoconstriction: restrict any heat being lost out of the body

• Nonshiveringthermogenesis: increased heat production due to enhancement of normal calorigenic metabolic processes thermogenesis, resulting from the effects of the sympathetic nervous system neurotransmitters, epinephrine, and norepinephrine, acting to increase the cellular metabolic lower-intensity muscle and other tissues, thereby increasing heat production.

  • In a specialized form of adipose tissue, brown fat, the effect of the sympathetic neurotransmitters is to increase the rate of uncoupled oxidative phosphorylation by the mitochondria, which results in heat production without the formation of adenosine 5'-triphosphate.

Body Surface Area to Body Mass Ratio Heat Preservation

Body Size:

• Fat: An insulator, reducing heat loss.

• Surface Area: Greater surface area allows for more heat loss.

Ideal Heat Preservation:

• More body mass (fat) and less surface area ratio are best.

• Shorter, stockier bodies retain heat better than taller, thinner ones.

• Children with lower body mass: surface area ratio struggle to maintain body temperature.

Wind Chill

• Increased wind speed (wind chill) accelerates heat loss through convection.

• Wind removes warm air insulating your body, forcing your body to work harder to maintain core temperature.

• Continuously moving air needs to be warmed by the body, leading to faster heat loss.

• Increases risk of hypothermia (abnormally low body temperature).

• Can worsen existing respiratory problems.

• May cause exposed skin to become numb, red, or even frostbitten

  • Atheletes should consider covering exposed areas like your face, ears, and hands with breathable fabrics to minimize heat loss

Swimming In Cold Water & Thermoregulation

Swimming in cold water impairs thermoregulation when;

• Water conducts heat away from the body faster than air (conduction).

• Swimming motion promotes continuous water displacement (convection).

• Water facilitates heat loss through radiation (cooling the skin).

• Muscle reflex contraction hinders coordination.

• There is an inability to generate enough heat to counteract rapid heat loss.

  • High-speed swimming can help generate heat and partially offset heat loss.

Physiological Responses To Exercise In The Cold

• Reduced fat burning: Less mobilization of fat and fatty acids for energy.

• Increased glucose reliance: The body turns to glucose and muscle glycogen for fuel, leading to:

  • Higher lactate production: A byproduct of using glucose for energy.

• Increased oxygen use: More ventilation is needed to supply oxygen for energy production.

• Decreased peripheral blood flow: Blood is diverted away from extremities to maintain core warmth.

• Heat loss: Increased heat loss through:

  • Respiration: Faster breathing releases more heat.

  • Conduction: Skin conducts heat away from the body to the colder environment, lowering core and muscle temperature.

Health Risks Of Exercising In The Cold

Frostbite and Hypothermia

Precautions When Exercising In Cold

• Clothing: is important in retaining body heat and maintaining a higher core body temperature, preventing health issues related to the cold.

  • Layering is often used to increase the effect of this as well as particular types of clothing.

• Insulation: is measured in CLO, a unit that makes up an index relating articles of clothing to the efficiency with which they insulate the body.’0’ CLO’s is the equivalent of a naked person, whereas ‘1’ is a completely insulated person.

• Dehydration: a problem in the cold weather as well, the combination of heavy clothes and intense exercise can result in fluid loss and hence is a danger in exercising in cold environments.

  • Drinking plenty of fluids is an important way to combat the dangers of dehydration in the cold.

• Inhaling cold air:

  • Heart Rate & Ventilation: Increased slightly but remained within normal exercise ranges.

  • Diastolic Blood Pressure: Significantly lower while inhaling cold air.

  • Oxygen Uptake & Respiration Rate: No significant changes observed.

  • Subject Complaints: No discomfort was reported related to cold air inhalation.

• Avoid Overdressing: Running and other forms of strenuous outdoor exercise can make the athlete feel as if it is 20-30 warmer.

  • Overdressing can lead to more sweating than the appropriate amount and layers would generate, and sweating can cause the body to become wet and cold.

  • In general, if dressed appropriately, one should feel slightly cold when starting to exercise.

A.3 Non-Nutritional Ergogenic Aids

Ergogenic Aid

– any substance or phenomenon that improves an athlete’s performance.

Placebo Effect

• A phenomenon whereby a fake treatment (a placebo), a substance composed of sugar and/or water, improves an athlete's performance for no reason other than the athlete expects it to help.

  • Placebos are often used by coaches in pre-performance and recovery situations to improve performance.

Positive Effect

• The belief that a beneficial treatment or intervention has been received (physiological, behavioral, emotional, or cognitive).

• Often used as a control during experiments investigating treatments, used to control validity.

Negative Effect

• Athletes may think they are experiencing negative effects (physiological, behavioral, emotional, or cognitive).

• An endurance performer may ingest a sports drink containing carbohydrates or artificial sweeteners.

Non-Nutritional Ergogenic Aids That Are Currently Banned By The International Olympic Committee (IOC) And World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA)

1. anabolic steroids – give an unfair advantage or added strength to the performer, and can be dangerous with elevated aggression.

2. hormones and related substances – stimulates growth quicker than others, unfair advantage.

3. diuretics and masking agents – masks and other illegal ergogenic aids that may have been taken.

4. beta-blockers – decreases heart rate so the performer can be more steady, commonly desired in shooting or precision sports.

5. stimulants – elevates heart rate, to get performer going, desired in fighting type sports.

Why Pharmacological Substances Appear on the List of Banned Substances

• Banned substances violate the spirit of fair competition in sports.

• They pose serious health risks to athletes who use them.

Hoped Benefits with Using Drugs

• Anabolic Steroids

  • Hoped-for benefit: muscle growth, faster recovery, increased training intensity.

  • Reality: limited muscle gain, potential fat gain, unproven endurance benefits.

• Erythropoietin (EPO)

  • Hoped-for benefit: increased oxygen-carrying capacity and exercise performance.

  • Reality: increased blood hemoglobin, some studies suggest potential cognitive issues.

• Caffeine

  • Hoped-for benefit: improved endurance performance.

  • Reality: effects vary greatly between individuals, unreliable benefit.

• Beta Blockers

  • Hoped-for benefit: increased precision and accuracy (through lowered heart rate).

  • Reality: well-proven benefit for focus and steadiness.

• Diuretics

  • Hoped-for benefit: weight control, masking other drug use (through dilution).

  • Reality: dehydration, and potential electrolyte imbalance, may not effectively hide drug use.

Possible Harmful Effects Of Long-Term Use Of Anabolic Steroids, Epo, Beta Blockers, Caffeine And Diuretics

Anabolic Steroids: Artificially produced hormones.

• Benefits:

  • promote muscle growth

  • produce lean body weight

• Side Effects:

  • liver damage

  • acne

  • excessive aggression

Erythropoietin (EPO): A natural hormone produced by the kidney that promotes the formation of red blood cells in the bone marrow, which increases hemoglobin levels.

• Benefits:

  • increases oxygen-carrying capacity

  • increase the amount of work able to be done (muscular endurance)

• Side Effects:

  • dehydration

  • viscosity of the blood

  • blood clotting

  • risk of heart attacks, strokes causing death

Beta Blockers: Helps to calm an individual down (lowers the heart rate).

• Benefits:

  • steadies the nerves

  • can improve accuracy

• Side Effects:

  • tiredness

  • low blood pressure

  • slower heart rate

Caffeine (Stimulants): Increase alertness and physical processes in the body.

• Benefits:

  • improve the mobilization of fatty acids

  • decreased tiredness

  • increases metabolism

  • increased alertness

• Side Effects:

  • dehydration

  • insomnia

  • weight loss

  • cardiovascular problems causing death

Diuretics: A drug that can conceal the presence of a prohibited substance in urine or other samples.

• Benefits:

  • mask other performance-enhancing drugs

• Side Effects:

  • dehydration

  • upset stomach

  • feeling faint

  • dizziness and low blood pressure

  • affects thermoregulation

  • loss of electrolytes and mineral salts → fatigue and muscle cramping

  • exhaustion and cardiac arrest

  • kidney failure