Comprehensive Latin Verb Systems and Roman Historical Notes

The Latin Perfect Active System (Tabella IX)

The Perfect Active System in Latin is formed systematically using the perfect stem. To identify this stem, one must look at the fourth form of a verb's dictionary entry (the first person singular perfect indicative active) and remove the final $-i$. For example, in the verb $amo, amas, amare, amav-i, amatum$, the stem is $amav-$. This system encompasses several tenses across the indicative and subjunctive moods, as well as non-personal forms like the perfect infinitive.

In the Indicative mood, the Pretérito Perfecto (Perfect) is translated as "he amado" or "amé." The personal endings added to the perfect stem are $-i$, $-isti$, $-it$, $-imus$, $-istis$, and $-erunt$ (with a variant ending $-ere$, such as $amaverunt = amavere$). Across the five conjugation types, the stems vary: first conjugation uses $amav-$, second uses $vid-$, third uses $leg-$, fourth uses $audiv-$, and the mixed conjugation uses $cep-$. The Pretérito Pluscuamperfecto (Pluperfect) expresses "había amado" and is formed by adding $-era-$ and the personal endings $-m$, $-s$, $-t$, $-mus$, $-tis$, $-nt$ to the perfect stem (e.g., $amav-era-m$, $vid-era-s$). The Futuro Perfecto (Future Perfect) translates to "habré sido" or "habré amado" and utilizes the marker $-er-$ followed by the endings $-o$, $-i-s$, $-i-t$, $-i-mus$, $-i-tis$, $-i-nt$ (e.g., $amav-er-o$, $leg-er-i-s$).

In the Subjunctive mood, the Pretérito Perfecto Subjuntivo translates to "haya amado." It is formed by adding $-eri-$ plus the endings $-m$, $-s$, $-t$, $-mus$, $-tis$, $-nt$ to the perfect stem (e.g., $amav-eri-m$, $audiv-eri-s$). The Pretérito Pluscuamperfecto Subjuntivo is translated as "hubiera," "hubiese," or "habría amado." This tense is formed by appending $-isse-$ and the personal endings $-m$, $-s$, $-t$, $-mus$, $-tis$, $-nt$ to the perfect stem (e.g., $amav-isse-m$, $cep-isse-t$). The non-personal form associated with this system is the Infinitivo de Perfecto Active, which translates to "haber amado" and is formed by adding $-isse$ to the stem (e.g., $amav-isse$, $vid-isse$, $leg-isse$, $audiv-isse$, $cep-isse$).

The Verb Sum and Its Compounds (Tabella A)

The verb $sum, es, esse, fui$ is irregular and serves as the primary auxiliary for "ser," "estar," "existir," or "haber." Its Present System in the Indicative includes the forms $sum$ (soy), $es$, $est$, $sumus$, $estis$, and $sunt$. The Pretérito Imperfecto (era) is formed as $eram$, $eras$, $erat$, $eramus$, $eratis$, and $erant$. The Futuro Imperfecto (seré) follows the pattern $ero$, $eris$, $erit$, $erimus$, $eritis$, and $erunt$. In the Subjunctive, the Present tense (sea) uses the forms $sim$, $sis$, $sit$, $simus$, $sitis$, and $sint$, while the Pretérito Imperfecto (fuese, fuera, sería) uses $essem$, $esses$, $esset$, $essemus$, $essetis$, and $essent$.

The Perfect System for the verb $sum$ follows the standard rules for the perfect system but uses the stem $fu-$ derived from the form $fui$. The Indicative Pretérito Perfecto (fui, he sido) is $fui$, $fuisti$, $fuit$, $fuimus$, $fuistis$, and $fuerunt$ (or $fuere$). The Pretérito Pluscuamperfecto (había sido) is $fueram$, $fueras$, $fuerat$, $fueramus$, $fueratis$, and $fuerant$. The Futuro Perfecto (habré sido) consists of $fuero$, $fueris$, $fuerit$, $fuerimus$, $fueritis$, and $fuerint$. In the Subjunctive, the Pretérito Perfecto (haya sido) is $fuerim$, $fueris$, $fuerit$, $fuerimus$, $fueritis$, and $fuerint$. The Pretérito Pluscuamperfecto Subjuntivo (hubiese sido, hubiera sido, habría sido) is $fuissem$, $fuisses$, $fuisset$, $fuissemus$, $fuissetis$, and $fuissent$. Non-personal forms include the Infinitivo de Presente ($esse$), the Infinitivo de Perfecto ($fuisse$), and the Participio de Futuro ($futurus, -a, -um$, meaning "que va a ser").

The verb $possum, potes, posse, potui$ (poder) follows a similar irregular pattern. Its Indicative Present includes $possum$ and $potes$. Its Subjunctive forms begin with $possim$ for the Present and $possem$ for the Pretérito Imperfecto.

The Passive Present System (Tabella VIII)

The Passive Voice for the present system is formed using the present stem. This stem is obtained from the second form of the verb's entry by removing the $-s$ or $-is$ (the latter specifically for the 3rd conjugation). For example, $ama-s \rightarrow ama-$ and $leg-is \rightarrow leg-$. The Present Indicative (soy amado) uses passive endings: $-or$, $-ris$ (variant $-re$), $-tur$, $-mur$, $-mini$, and $-ntur$. In the 1st conjugation, the $a$ of the theme disappears in the first person singular ($a + o \rightarrow o$) and changes to $e$ before $r$ ($a + e \rightarrow e$). In the 3rd conjugation, union vowels like $e$, $i$, or $u$ are inserted (e.g., $leg-e-ris$, $leg-i-tur$, $leg-u-ntur$).

The Pretérito Imperfecto Indicativo (era amado) is characterized by the marker $-ba-$ inserted between the stem and the passive endings: $-ba-r$, $-ba-ris$, $-ba-tur$, $-ba-mur$, $-ba-mini$, $-ba-ntur$. The Futuro Imperfecto Indicativo (seré amado) differs by conjugation: the 1st and 2nd conjugations use $-bo, -be, -bi, -bu-$ markers ($ama-b-or$, $ama-b-e-ris$, $ama-b-i-tur$), whereas the 3rd, 4th, and mixed conjugations use $-a-$ and $-e-$ markers ($leg-a-r$, $leg-e-ris$, $leg-e-tur$).

In the Subjunctive mood, the Present (sea amado) switches vowels: the 1st conjugation uses the marker $-e-$ ($am-e-r$), while the 2nd, 3rd, 4th, and mixed conjugations use the marker $-a-$ ($vide-a-r$, $leg-a-r$). The Pretérito Imperfecto Subjuntivo (fuera, fuese, sería amado) uses the marker $-re-$ (e.g., $ama-re-r$, $vide-re-r$). The Imperativo Presente has two forms: Singular ($ama-re$, meaning "sé amado") and Plural ($ama-mini$, meaning "sed amados"). The Infinitivo de Presente Passive (ser amado) uses the ending $-ri$ for the 1st, 2nd, and 4th conjugations ($ama-ri$, $vide-ri$, $audi-ri$), but the 3rd and mixed conjugations use only $-i$ ($leg-i$, $capi-i$).

The Active Present System and Irregular Verbs (Tabella VII and XIII)

The Active Present System relies on the same stem-derivation rules as the passive system. The Indicative Present (amo) uses endings $-o$, $-s$, $-t$, $-mus$, $-tis$, $-nt$. The Pretérito Imperfecto (amaba) utilizes the $-ba-$ marker ($ama-ba-m$, $ama-ba-s$). The Futuro Imperfecto (amaré) uses $-bo, -bi, -bu$ for the 1st/2nd conjugations and $-a, -e$ for the others. Subjunctive forms include the Present (ame) and Pretérito Imperfecto (amara, amase, amaría). Non-personal forms include the Infinitivo de Presente ($ama-re$) and the Participio de Presente (amando), which uses the stem plus $-n(t)$, resulting in nominative forms like $ama-n(t)s$ and genitives like $ama-nt-is$.

The verbs $volo$ (querer), $nolo$ (no querer), and $malo$ (preferir) are irregular. In the Present Indicative, $volo$ is conjugated as $volo, vis, vult, volumus, vultis, volunt$. For $nolo$, the forms are $nolo, non vis, non vult, nolumus, non vultis, nolunt$. For $malo$, the forms are $malo, mavis, mavult, malumus, mavultis, malunt$. Their imperfect forms use stems like $volebam$, $nolebam$, and $malebam$. Their subjunctive present forms are $velim$, $nolim$, and $malim$, while the imperfect subjunctives are $vellem$, $nollem$, and $mallem$. Infinitives for these verbs are $velle$, $nolle$, and $malle$. Their perfect stems are $volu-$, $nolu-$, and $malu-$, used to form infinitives like $voluisse$, $noluisse$, and $maluisse$.

Historical Context of the Roman Monarchy

According to the supplementary textual notes, the Roman Monarchy spanned the years $753$ to $609$ BC ($753-609\,a-C$). The system involved a king (Rey), who was sealed/confirmed by the Assembly of the people (Asamblea del puell). The notes highlight the presence of two Latin kings, most notably Romulus (Romulo). There is explicit mention of the Etruscan influence (Etruscos) and the transition towards the end of the monarchy involving Tarquin (Tarquinio). A significant narrative event noted is the connection between Tarquinio, Lucretia, and his son, which points toward the legendary catalyst for the fall of the monarchy and the rise of the Republic. The foundation is described as "roulea" or from the "serrallo," and the term "sivecismo" is noted in relation to the initial urban or political development.