Learning

1.    What is operant conditioning?

It is a learning method that uses rewards and punishment for behaviour. We engage in behaviours that lead to a good outcome, whereas we tend to avoid behaviors we know will lead to bad outcomes or punishment

2.    How is operant conditioning different than classical conditioning?

Classical conditioning is when you associate a stimulus with a involuntary response. For example, when the dog in Pavlov’s experiment hears the bell he knows he is going to get food and then starts involuntarily drooling.  Operant conditioning is when you associate a voluntary behaviour with a consequence. For example if a kid gets ice cream every time they get a good grade, they will associate good grades with a positive outcome.

3.    What is the law of effect (Thorndike) and how can it modify behaviour?

Behaviour that is followed by a positive outcome is more likely to be repeated whereas behaviour that is followed with consequences will be avoided. This causes the individual to either repeat behaviours or avoid them based on outcomes they have had in the past

4.    What is primary and secondary reinforcement? Give examples of each.

Primary reinforcements are biological in nature such as eating and drinking Whereas secondary is something that is learned. For example, if you give a dog a food every time he does a trick that is primary reinforcement and if you give your dog verbal praise that is secondary reinforcement.

5.    How does punishment affect behaviour? Is it effective?

Punishment can cause an individual to avoid repeating a behaviour since now they associate doing that behaviour with the punishment

6.    What are the advantages and disadvantages of continuous reinforcement?

Advantages

The advantage is that the desired behaviour will be learned quickly

Disadvantages

The disadvantage is that it is hard to maintain over a long time since it takes a lot of effort to reinforce the behaviour every time it happens

7.    What is the difference between positive and negative reinforcement? Which one do you think is more effective and why?

Positive reinforcement is when you reward them with a pleasant stimulus after they complete the behaviour to increase the likeliness they will repeat it

Negative reinforcement is when you remove a unpleasant stimulus after they complete the behaviour

Positive reinforcement is more effective since it encourages them to form long term habits and it has a lower risk of unintended risks

8.    What are the four partial reinforcement schedules? Which one do you think is more effective?

The four partial reinforcement schedules are patterns of delivering reinforcement that vary based on time or the number of responses required. Each has unique characteristics that influence behavior.

1.    Fixed Ratio (FR)

A reinforcement is provided after a set of responses like a worker receiving a bonus for how many items tey produce

• Definition: Reinforcement is provided after a set number of responses.

• Example: A factory worker receives a bonus for every 10 items produced.

• Effect on Behavior:

  • Produces a high rate of response.

  • After reinforcement, a brief pause (post-reinforcement pause) is often observed before resuming the behavior.

2.    Variable Ratio (VR)

• Definition: Reinforcement is provided after an unpredictable number of responses, but the average number remains consistent.

• Example: Slot machines in casinos reinforce a win after a random number of lever pulls.

• Effect on Behavior:

  • Produces a very high and steady rate of response.

  • Highly resistant to extinction because the unpredictability keeps individuals engaged.

3. Fixed Interval (FI)

• Definition: Reinforcement is provided after a fixed amount of time, as long as at least one response has occurred.

• Example: A weekly paycheck reinforces working behavior at the end of each week.

• Effect on Behavior:

  • Produces a "scalloped" response pattern: responses increase as the time for reinforcement approaches and slow down just after reinforcement.

4. Variable Interval (VI)

• Definition: Reinforcement is provided after an unpredictable amount of time has passed, as long as at least one response has occurred.

• Example: A teacher gives pop quizzes at random intervals to encourage consistent studying.

• Effect on Behavior:

  • Produces a steady and moderate rate of response.

  • Highly resistant to extinction because the timing of reinforcement is unpredictable.

The fixed ratio is most effective because it is the most consistent and will encourage the individual to do the behaviour long term

9.    How have you conditioned your parents? Is it a positive or a negative reinforcement?

10. Who is B.F. Skinner and what is his claim to fame

B.F. Skinner was American psychologist, behaviorist, author, and inventor. He developed the theory of Operant Conditioning including concepts of reinforcement and punishment. He also created a experiement with rats called the skinner box where he proved his theory of operant conditionin. He also believed in radical behaviourism which is that all human and animal behaviour could be understood through observable actions and environmental influences.

Senses questions

“top down processing”

• Uses higher level cognitive processing such as expectations and prior knowledge to interpret incoming stimuli

• Allowing individuals to make sense of ambiguous or incomplete sensory input by inferring missing details

“bottom up processing”

• taking in raw sensory information and processing it without the need of prior knowledge or expectations

What are thresholds and how do they differ?

1. Absolute threshold- the smallest detectable threshold

2. Difference threshold-detectable difference in stimulus

What is signal detection and how does it affect your life?

• It measures the ability to detect stimulus from surrounding stimuli (noise)

• How we might hear the faint sound of the stove on and remember to turn it off

What is sensory adaptation? Selective Attention?

The way our senses adjust to different stimuli

ex: How our eyes dilate smaller in dark environments

Selective Attention- How we only focus on the main object while ignoring the background objects

What part of the light spectrum do humans see? Can animals see in different light spectrums? If so, explain which animals and how they see.

Humans can see visible light, 400-700 nm

Explain the differences between normal vision, nearsightedness and farsightedness.

Normal vision (20/20): Light focuses directly on retina

Nearsightedness (Myopia): Light focuses in front of retina, distant objects are blurry

Farsightedness (hyperopia): Light focuses behind the retina, causing close objects to appear blurry

What are the three basic colours involved in vision?

Red, blue and green are detected by cone cells

What is “figure ground relationships”?

The relationship between a subject or a figure and the background, ex: optical allusions

What are grouping principles?

Rules the brain uses to organize visual elements

• Proximity, similarity, continuity, closure, and connectedness.

What is depth perception?

Ability to see object in three dimensions

What is the difference between binocular and monocular depth cues?

Binocular cues require two eyes (see in three dimension) whereas monocular depth cues require one eye (see in two dimension)

What are monocular depth cues?

Cues able to be precieved with one eye

ex: relative size - objects farther away look smaller

How does motion affect our vision?

Motion creates depth and direction cues, aiding in tracking and spatial understanding.

Explain perceptual constancy

Tendency for animals and humans having the same shape, size, color, location regardless in change of perspective.

What happens when someone losses their abilities to see one of the colours? How would it affect their life?

Can cause them to be unsafe to drive

What is a decibel? Hertz?

Decibel measures sound intensity

Herts measures sound frequency

How do you hear?

1. Our outer ear vibrates the sound waves and directs to ear drum

2. Vibrations move through middle ear and inner ear

3. Signals travel to brain, translating it into what you hear

What is tinnitus? How do you get it, what causes it and how is it cured?

It is when there is constant ringing in your ear and is caused by stress, hearing damage, age or illness. There is no cure, but medication, sound therapy devices and cognitive therapy

How do you damage your hearing?

Loud noises, age, infections

How do people regain their hearing?

Hearing aids and cochlear implants

How do you locate/identify where a sound comes from?

Through the intensity difference and the timing (when the sound reaches you)

What can cause people to be unable to properly locate a sound?

Hearing loss in one ear or unable to mask background noise

What are the four basic tastes?

• Sweet, sour. bitter, salty

Does texture affect taste? Explain

The texture of the food can affect the taste by slowing the rate of which the flavour exits the food

Explain how you smell? How can this sense be damaged?

Odour molecules stimulate the nasal cavity and then it sends signals to the brain

You can lose your sense of smell if the mucus membranes in the nose are irritated

What are the four basic skin senses? How can this be altered/enhanced/decreased?

• touch, pressure, temperature and pain

• Through anesthesia, numbing cream or nerve damage it can reduce the pain and pressure you feel

What are the 2 body senses and how are they different?

1. Kinesthetic Sense (Proprioception):

• Definition: The awareness of the position and movement of your body parts.

• How It Works: Receptors in muscles, tendons, and joints send signals to the brain about limb positioning and movement.

• Purpose: Enables coordinated and precise movements without relying on vision.

• Example: Closing your eyes and touching your nose or walking without staring at your feet.

2. Vestibular Sense:

• Definition: The sense of balance and spatial orientation.

• How It Works: The inner ear (semicircular canals and vestibular sacs) detects changes in head position, motion, and gravitational forces, sending signals to the brain.

• Purpose: Helps maintain balance, posture, and stability while moving or standing still.

• Example: Staying upright on a bicycle or feeling dizzy after spinning.

Can we trick our sense? Explain.

Yes through optical illusions and VR

What is the difference between perception and sensation? How/where does memory fit into this?

Which is more important to you, sensation or perception? Explain

Sensation is the raw data input, and perception is how the brain processes and interprets that input to create an understanding of the world. Both are crucial for interacting with and navigating the environment.

. What is Classical Conditioning?

Classical conditioning is a learning process where a previously neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus, leading to a learned response. It was first discovered by Ivan Pavlov through his experiments with dogs.

Example: A dog salivates when it sees food (natural response). After repeatedly pairing food with a bell sound, the dog begins to salivate when it hears the bell alone.

2. Key Terms in Classical Conditioning:

• Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS):
  A stimulus that naturally triggers a response without prior learning.

  • Example: Food, which naturally makes a dog salivate.

• Unconditioned Response (UCR):
  The automatic response to the UCS.

  • Example: Salivating when seeing food.

• Conditioned Stimulus (CS):
  A previously neutral stimulus that, after being paired with the UCS, triggers a learned response.

  • Example: A bell, which initially had no effect but now makes the dog salivate after conditioning.

• Conditioned Response (CR):
  The learned response to the conditioned stimulus.

  • Example: Salivating when hearing the bell.

Other Important Concepts:

• Acquisition:
  The phase during which the neutral stimulus becomes associated with the UCS to elicit the CR.

  • Example: Repeatedly pairing the bell (CS) with food (UCS) until the dog salivates to the bell.

• Extinction:
  The weakening of the CR when the CS is no longer paired with the UCS.

  • Example: If the bell rings but no food follows, the dog will eventually stop salivating to the bell.

• Spontaneous Recovery:
  The sudden reappearance of the CR after it has been extinguished, often occurring after a pause.

  • Example: After a break, the dog may briefly salivate again when it hears the bell.

3. Who is Watson (Psychology)?

John B. Watson was a psychologist and founder of behaviorism, a theory focused on observable behaviors rather than inner thoughts or emotions.

• Beliefs:
  He believed behavior is shaped entirely by the environment and learning experiences, not inherited traits.

• Famous Experiment:
  The Little Albert Experiment demonstrated how fear could be conditioned in humans.

  • He paired a loud noise (UCS) with a white rat (neutral stimulus).

  • After repeated pairings, Little Albert began to fear the white rat (CR), even without the noise.

4. Who is Pavlov, and What is His Claim to Fame?

Ivan Pavlov was a Russian physiologist who discovered classical conditioning during his research on digestion in dogs.

• Famous Experiment:

  • Pavlov noticed dogs would salivate (UCR) when presented with food (UCS).

  • By pairing the food with a bell (CS), he conditioned the dogs to salivate (CR) at the sound of the bell alone.

5. Have You Ever Trained an Animal? How Did You Accomplish This?

Training an animal often involves principles of classical and operant conditioning:

• Classical Conditioning Example: Associating a command ("sit") with a treat to teach a dog to sit.

• Operant Conditioning Example: Reinforcing desired behavior with rewards or discouraging unwanted behavior with consequences.

6. What Are Some of Your Fears? Why Are You Scared of Them?

Fears are often learned through personal experiences or observation. For example:

• Fear of heights may develop after witnessing someone fall.

• Fear of spiders may be influenced by cultural or familial attitudes.

7. How Is School a Form of Classical Conditioning, or Is It?

Yes, school involves classical conditioning in various ways:

• Positive Association: A teacher (CS) who praises students may create a love for learning (CR).

• Negative Association: Tests (CS) paired with anxiety (UCR) may lead to test-related stress (CR).

8. Ways in Which Fears Are Conquered:

1. Systematic Desensitization:
   Gradually exposing a person to the feared stimulus while teaching relaxation techniques.

2. Flooding:
   Intense and prolonged exposure to the feared stimulus until the fear response diminishes.

3. Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT):
   Identifying and challenging irrational fears to change thought patterns.

4. Counterconditioning:
   Replacing the fear response with a positive response through new associations.

9. Ethical Implications of the "Little Albert Experiment":

The experiment raised significant ethical concerns:

• Lack of Consent: Little Albert’s guardian may not have fully understood the experiment’s implications.

• Harm to the Subject: Albert was deliberately made to experience fear, potentially causing long-term psychological harm.

• No Debriefing: Watson did not attempt to reverse or desensitize Albert’s fear after the experiment.

Modern ethical guidelines prohibit causing unnecessary harm to participants, especially vulnerable individuals like children.