Luca and after

PART 1

After Luca

  • Cicero – politically sidelined

  • Violence in Rome

  • Triumvirate under pressure (58–56 BC)

56 BC – Conference at Luca: renewal of the triumvirate
55 BC – Second joint consulship of Pompey and Crassus

54 BC – Death of Julia (Pompey’s wife, Caesar’s daughter)

The situation worried Caesar, and he hoped to bind Pompey to him by another marriage alliance. He offered his great-niece Octavia to Pompey and even suggested divorcing his own wife in order to marry Pompey’s daughter. Pompey refused the offer, possibly to keep his options open so that later he could move towards the optimates.

53 BC – Death of Crassus at Carrhae

“On the Euphrates, Crassus lost his standards, his son, his men, and in the end his life.” — Ovid

BREAKDOWN OF THE TRIUMVIRATE

Cicero – After Luca

  • Palinode – Cicero was humiliated and publicly proclaimed his support for the Three.

  • In 56 BC Cicero defended L. Cornelius Balbus, a close friend of both Pompey and Caesar. He then successfully defended Bursa (a man he disliked).

  • He jumped from one case to the next. All these men were associated with the triumvirs.

  • In summer 54 BC he defended Vatinius, whom he had attacked just two years before in the trial of Sestius.

  • Forced to defend Gabinius.

Law Courts, Literature, but No Political Power

Three themes define Cicero’s life after Luca: law courts, literature, and lack of political independence. He remained an avid observer of the political scene but no longer an active participant.

For Cicero, there was no republic, no senate, no courts, and no dignity in anyone; he could not play an active part in politics. He turned to the study of literature and philosophy.

Cicero’s Speech On the Consular Provinces

  • The optimates in the senate, such as Ahenobarbus, were trying to recall Caesar from Gaul out of concern for his excessive power.

Cicero told an audience of senators:

“You have conferred many exceptional honours upon Caesar, and nearly all of them were unique. Insofar that he has earned them, you have shown gratitude; but also because he is most committed to his order, you have shown a godlike wisdom.”

Cicero’s Theoretical Works

  • In these years Cicero retreated more and more into his literary studies, providing Rome with a canon of literature to rival the Greeks. This was Cicero engaging in politics and persuasion from a very different angle: he wrote theoretical works.

  • First came The Republic, which explored his ideas for a working political constitution.

  • Then there was a dialogue explaining the qualities a good speaker should possess – On the Ideal Orator.

  • He also began The Laws, the sequel to The Republic, examining the legal codes that the ideal state should possess.

Theoretical Work – Political Act?

  • The publication of these works was a political act in itself.

  • These works reminded Cicero of everything he stood for. Through this work, Cicero overcame his depression; he found the means to pull himself together and stand upright again.

  • He did not have to wait long to show his new-found strength: in 52 BC he had to defend his friend Milo against a charge of murder. The victim was Clodius.

Letter: Fam. 2.4 (3) To Curio — 53 BC

To His Friends 2.4: To Curio — Rome, 53 BC

As you know, there are many types of letters, but there is one kind that is unmistakable, and this is the reason that letters were invented. Letter-writing was invented so that we might inform those absent if there was anything they should know.

As for my own affairs, there is nothing new. Two types of letter greatly delight me: one familiar and funny, the other serious and grave. Which of the two would be less suitable, I do not know.

Am I to joke with you by letter? By Hercules! I do not think there could be a good citizen able to laugh at this time.

Am I to write something more serious? What could Cicero write to Curio about that could be more serious than the republic? But on this subject, my case is this: I do not dare to write what I feel, and I do not wish to write what I don’t feel.

Since there is no theme left for a letter, I shall fall back on my usual words and urge you to aim for the highest praise. You have a serious rival here, firmly established and prepared for you, in the extraordinary expectations people have of you. You will easily overcome this rival if you deliberately develop, with continuous effort, the necessary qualities to achieve your purpose.

I would write more if I were not confident that you are eager enough already. If I have mentioned this subject, it is not to inflame your ambitions, but to demonstrate my love for you.

Questions

According to Cicero:

  1. Letters were invented in order to ________.

  2. There are ______ other types of letter: ______ and ______.

Cicero says that:

  1. In this letter he will provide no information to Curio because ________.

  2. The situation in Rome is ________.

  3. What is Cicero’s attitude towards Curio?

  4. Where and when did Cicero mention Curio before? Taking that into account, is Cicero’s current encouragement surprising? Historical background? Who was Curio? (Check Taylor.) What was the situation in Rome when this letter was written?

Anarchy at Rome

52 BC – Clodius & Milo

  • By the late 50s the political system of Rome was in serious disorder. It was no longer possible to elect magistrates without violence and disruption.

  • After a huge electoral scandal in 54 BC, no magistrates (other than tribunes) were elected until July 53. That year also ended without elections. Rome seemed to be becoming ungovernable.

  • In January 52 BC violence erupted on an unprecedented scale. The long-standing enmity between Milo and Clodius erupted in a clash between them (and their supporters) on the Appian Way. Clodius was killed.

Action Against Violence

Yet another special command?

Pompey – “Lesser of Two Evils?”

  • The optimates (on the motion of Cato and Bibulus) turned to Pompey as the only person capable of dealing with the situation. Legislation was passed and Pompey was elected sole consul for 52 BC.

  • Pompey seemed the lesser of two evils, and he was in Rome — which may explain Cato’s pragmatism in supporting an unconstitutional stance.

Cicero defended Milo unsuccessfully; Milo went into exile.

52 BC – Pompey’s Sole Consulship

Pompey’s Legislation

  1. A law against public violence.

  2. A law stipulating a five-year interval between urban magistracies and provincial commands (lex Pompeia de provinciis) — directed at diminishing corruption.

  3. A law demanding that candidates must appear in person at elections.

For the last five months of the year, Pompey took Metellus Scipio (his new father-in-law) as colleague. He strengthened his position by having his command over the two Spains extended for a further five years, but he did nothing more for Caesar.

Effect of Pompey’s Legislation on Caesar (2nd and 3rd laws)

  • Caesar could be replaced immediately when his command ended.

  • Between his proconsulship and his election to a second consulship, there would be an interval during which he could be prosecuted.

  • Caesar’s plans to avoid prosecution depended on being able to stand for the consulship in absentia.

  • In 52 BC a bill sponsored by all ten tribunes granted him this right, but Pompey decreed that all candidates must appear in person. Caesar’s supporters pointed out the inconsistency, and Pompey added a clause exempting Caesar.

PART 2

  • Cicero as a governor

  • Sliding to civil war