middle east final exam

Arab Spring

• A series of pro-democracy uprisings across the Arab world starting in late 2010, sparked by economic hardship, corruption, and authoritarianism.

How Arab Spring Started

• Triggered by the self-immolation of Mohamed Bouazizi in Tunisia after police harassment. His death became a symbol of repression and sparked protests.

Why Did It Start?

• Common causes:

  • High youth unemployment

  • Corruption and police brutality

  • Lack of political freedoms

  • Rising food prices and inequality

Consequences of Arab Spring

• Egypt: Mubarak was ousted, then a short-lived democracy followed by military rule under Sisi.

• Syria: Peaceful protests turned into a brutal civil war.

• Regional instability, migration crises, and rise of extremist groups like ISIS.

Causes of Turmoil and Instability in the Middle East

• Colonial legacies, sectarian divisions (Sunni vs. Shia), authoritarianism, economic inequality, foreign interventions, and resource competition.

Causes of Revolution in the Middle East

• Similar to Arab Spring: corruption, repression, inequality, lack of freedoms, and sometimes religious or sectarian motives.

Causes of Relative Stability

• Harsh authoritarian regimes suppress dissent through:

  • Surveillance, censorship

  • Police/military control

  • Clientelism and propaganda

  • Use of emergency laws

Authoritarian Rule

• Power held by a single ruler or small elite.

• Lacks free elections, limits on power, press freedom.

• Relies on repression, fear, patronage networks.

Causes of Iranian Revolution (1979)

• Discontent with Shah’s authoritarianism and Westernization.

• Economic problems, corruption.

• Religious opposition (led by Khomeini).

• Loss of legitimacy after brutal crackdowns.

Current U.S. Foreign Policy in the Middle East

• Focus on:

  • Counterterrorism

  • Supporting allies (e.g., Israel, Gulf states)

  • Managing Iran (nuclear deal tensions)

  • Stabilizing conflict zones (Syria, Yemen)

Civil War in Syria: Causes

• Protests against Assad’s rule in 2011

• Brutal crackdowns, sectarian tensions (Alawite vs. Sunni)

• Foreign interventions (Iran, Russia vs. U.S., Turkey, Gulf states)

• Emergence of ISIS and Kurdish movements

Civil War in Yemen: Causes

• 2011 uprising, Houthi rebellion against central gov’t

• Sectarian divide (Shia Houthis vs. Sunni gov’t)

• Saudi-led coalition vs. Iranian support for Houthis

Civil War in Lebanon: Causes (1975–1990)

• Sectarian tensions (Christian, Sunni, Shia, Druze)

• Palestinian presence after 1948

• Israeli and Syrian interventions

• Collapse of political balance

Short Answer Topics

Russia vs. England in Iran (19th–20th Century)

• Imperial competition over resources and influence.

• Britain controlled oil (Anglo-Iranian Oil Co.), Russia wanted territory.

• Divided Iran into spheres of influence (1907 Agreement).

3 Goals of Iran’s Constitutional Revolution (1905–1911)

1. Limit royal power through a constitution.

2. Establish a parliament (Majlis).

3. Rule of law and modernization.

British Dominance in Iran (20th Century)

• Control over oil industry.

• Political manipulation (e.g., 1953 coup).

• Use of economic pressure and alliances with elites.

Balfour Declaration (1917)

• British promise to support a "national home for the Jewish people" in Palestine.

• Sparked conflict with Arab population.

Atatürk vs. Reza Shah (Comparison)

Achievements:

• Atatürk (Turkey): secularism, Latin alphabet, women’s rights, abolition of caliphate.

• Reza Shah (Iran): centralization, modernization, infrastructure, secular schools.

Failures:

• Both suppressed dissent, ruled autocratically.

• Resistance from religious groups and rural populations.

Creation of Modern States

Iraq:

• Created by Britain after WWI from Ottoman provinces.

• Monarchy established under British influence, later overthrown in 1958.

Syria:

• French mandate post-WWI, gained independence in 1946.

• Military coups and rise of Ba’ath Party.

Pan-Arabism & Abdel Nasser

• Nasser’s goal: unite Arab states under socialism and independence from colonial powers.

• Nationalized Suez Canal (1956), fought Western dominance.

Suez Canal Nationalization

• Nasser took control from British-French company.

• Led to Suez Crisis; Egypt seen as anti-imperial symbol.

Muslim Brotherhood

• Founded 1928 in Egypt by Hassan al-Banna.

• Islamist movement for governance based on Sharia.

• Opposes Western influence and secularism.

Egypt Under Sadat and Mubarak

• Sadat: Peace with Israel (Camp David), opened economy (Infitah).

• Mubarak: Stability through repression, pro-U.S. policy, ousted in 2011 uprising.

Saudi Arabia: Basis of Power

• Absolute monarchy, ruled by Al Saud family.

• Power rooted in oil wealth, religious legitimacy (Wahhabism), tribal alliances.

1953 Coup in Iran

• CIA and MI6 backed coup against PM Mossadegh after he nationalized oil.

• Reinstalled Shah, increasing authoritarianism.

Iran-Syria Relations

• Iran supports Assad regime.

• Hezbollah (Shia militia backed by Iran) fights for Assad.

• Iran supports Houthis in Yemen as part of regional influence (against Saudi interests).

Who Are the Alawites?

• Minority Shia sect in Syria.

• Assad family belongs to Alawite group.

• Control key government and military posts.

Who Rules Syria Today?

• Bashar al-Assad, backed by Russia and Iran, still holds power despite civil war.