middle east final exam

Arab Spring

• A series of pro-democracy uprisings across the Arab world starting in late 2010, sparked by economic hardship, corruption, and authoritarianism.

How Arab Spring Started

• Triggered by the Mohamed Bouazizi setting himself on fire in Tunisia after police harassment. His death became a symbol of repression and sparked protests.

Why Did It Start?

• Common causes:

  • High youth unemployment

  • Corruption and police brutality

  • Lack of political freedoms

  • Rising food prices and inequality

Consequences of Arab Spring

• Egypt: Mubarak was ousted, then a short-lived democracy followed by military rule under Sisi.

• Syria: Peaceful protests turned into a brutal civil war.

• Regional instability, migration crises, and rise of extremist groups like ISIS.

Causes of Turmoil and Instability in the Middle East

• Colonial legacies, sectarian divisions (Sunni vs. Shia), authoritarianism, economic inequality, foreign interventions, and resource competition.

Causes of Revolution in the Middle East

• Similar to Arab Spring: corruption, repression, inequality, lack of freedoms, and sometimes religious or sectarian motives.

Causes of Relative Stability

• Harsh authoritarian regimes suppress dissent through:

  • Surveillance, censorship

  • Police/military control

  • Clientelism and propaganda

  • Use of emergency laws

Authoritarian Rule

• Power held by a single ruler or small elite.

• Lacks free elections, limits on power, press freedom.

• Relies on repression, fear, patronage networks.

Causes of Iranian Revolution (1979)

• Discontent with Shah’s authoritarianism and Westernization.

• Economic problems, corruption.

• Religious opposition (led by Khomeini).

• Loss of legitimacy after brutal crackdowns.

Current U.S. Foreign Policy in the Middle East

• Focus on:

  • Counterterrorism

  • Supporting allies (e.g., Israel, Gulf states)

  • Managing Iran (nuclear deal tensions)

  • Stabilizing conflict zones (Syria, Yemen)

Civil War in Syria: Causes

• Protests against Assad’s rule in 2011

• Brutal crackdowns, sectarian tensions (Alawite vs. Sunni)

• Foreign interventions (Iran, Russia vs. U.S., Turkey, Gulf states)

• Emergence of ISIS and Kurdish movements

Civil War in Yemen: Causes

• 2011 uprising, Houthi rebellion against central gov’t

• Sectarian divide (Shia Houthis vs. Sunni gov’t)

• Saudi-led coalition vs. Iranian support for Houthis

Civil War in Lebanon: Causes (1975–1990)

• Sectarian tensions (Christian, Sunni, Shia, Druze)

• Palestinian presence after 1948

• Israeli and Syrian interventions

• Collapse of political balance

Short Answer Topics

Russia vs. England in Iran (19th–20th Century)

• Imperial competition over resources and influence.

• Britain controlled oil (Anglo-Iranian Oil Co.), Russia wanted territory.

• Divided Iran into spheres of influence (1907 Agreement).

3 Goals of Iran’s Constitutional Revolution (1905–1911)

1. Limit royal power through a constitution.

2. Establish a parliament (Majlis).

3. Rule of law and modernization.

British Dominance in Iran (20th Century)

• Control over oil industry.

• Political manipulation (e.g., 1953 coup).

• Use of economic pressure and alliances with elites.

Balfour Declaration (1917)

• British promise to support a "national home for the Jewish people" in Palestine.

• Sparked conflict with Arab population.

Atatürk vs. Reza Shah (Comparison)

Achievements:

• Atatürk (Turkey): secularism, Latin alphabet, women’s rights, abolition of caliphate.

• Reza Shah (Iran): centralization, modernization, infrastructure, secular schools.

Failures:

• Both suppressed dissent, ruled autocratically.

• Resistance from religious groups and rural populations.

Creation of Modern States

Iraq:

• Created by Britain after WWI from Ottoman provinces.

• Monarchy established under British influence, later overthrown in 1958.

Syria:

• French mandate post-WWI, gained independence in 1946.

• Military coups and rise of Ba’ath Party.- arab nationlism, socialism, secularism

Pan-Arabism & Abdel Nasser

• Nasser’s goal: unite Arab states under socialism and independence from colonial powers.

• Nationalized Suez Canal (1956), fought Western dominance.

Suez Canal Nationalization

• Nasser took control from British-French company.

• Led to Suez Crisis; Egypt seen as anti-imperial symbol.

Muslim Brotherhood

• Founded 1928 in Egypt by Hassan al-Banna.

• Islamist movement for governance based on Sharia.

• Opposes Western influence and secularism.

Egypt Under Sadat and Mubarak

• Sadat: Peace with Israel (Camp David), opened economy (Infitah).

• Mubarak: Stability through repression, pro-U.S. policy, ousted in 2011 uprising.

Saudi Arabia: Basis of Power

• Absolute monarchy, ruled by Al Saud family.

• Power rooted in oil wealth, religious legitimacy (Wahhabism), tribal alliances.

1953 Coup in Iran

• CIA and MI6 backed coup against PM Mossadegh after he nationalized oil.

• Reinstalled Shah, increasing authoritarianism.

Iran-Syria Relations

• Iran supports Assad regime.

• Hezbollah (Shia militia backed by Iran) fights for Assad.

• Iran supports Houthis in Yemen as part of regional influence (against Saudi interests).

Who Are the Alawites?

• Minority Shia sect in Syria.

• Assad family belongs to Alawite group.

• Control key government and military posts.

Who Rules Syria Today?

• Bashar al-Assad, backed by Russia and Iran, still holds power despite civil war.

GAP THEORY

Samuel Huntington said that when a country’s society changes quickly—for example, people get more educated, move to cities, or demand more rights—but the government doesn’t improve fast enough to handle those changes, problems happen.

In other words, there's a gap between what people expect (because life is changing) and what the government can deliver (because it's too slow or weak). That gap can lead to political instability, protests, or even violence.