World History Study Guide (copy)

Scientific Revolution

Copernicus

Developed the heliocentric model, proposing that the Earth orbits the Sun, marking a fundamental shift in our understanding of the solar system. 

Galileo

Used the telescope to observe the moons of Jupiter, supporting the heliocentric theory, and made significant contributions to the study of motion and inertia, laying the groundwork for Newton's laws. 

Kepler

Discovered that planets move in elliptical orbits around the Sun, formulating the laws of planetary motion which explained the patterns of planetary movement with mathematical precision. 

Newton

Formulated the Law of Universal Gravitation, explaining the force that keeps planets in their orbits, and developed the three laws of motion, providing a comprehensive framework for understanding motion in the universe. 

The heliocentric theory challenged religious and traditional beliefs by directly contradicting the widely held geocentric model, which placed Earth at the center of the universe, essentially suggesting that humans and Earth were not the central focus of creation as many religious texts implied, leading to significant tension between scientific discovery and established religious doctrine; most notably seen in the conflict between Galileo Galilei and the Catholic Church. 

Galileo face resistance for supporting Copernicus’ ideas, because his theory of a heliocentric universe (with the sun at the center) contradicted the prevailing geocentric model accepted by the Catholic Church at the time, which placed the Earth at the center, and was seen as conflicting with interpretations of scripture in the Bible, leading to accusations of heresy

Newton’s laws of motion influence later scientific discoveries by his Three Laws of Motion and Universal Law of Gravity were used to prove the developing heliocentric view of the universe, the idea that the planets revolve around the Sun, rather than the Earth, as was previously believed.

The Scientific Method is a systematic process of investigation that involves making observations, asking questions, forming a hypothesis, conducting experiments to test the hypothesis, analyzing data, and drawing conclusions based on the results, allowing scientists to objectively establish facts through testing and experimentation. 

The science of medicine advanced to the scientific method by made drawings that showed the different parts of the human body. Another learned how the heart pumped blood through the body.

The Scientific Revolution significantly influenced Enlightenment thought by promoting the use of reason, logic, and empirical observation as the primary tools for understanding the world, leading to a shift away from traditional religious authority and paving the way for philosophers to apply scientific methods to analyze society and human nature

The Enlightenment

Thomas Hobbes

Hobbes’s Social Contract , The best government was one that had the awesome power of a leviathan (sea monster), Best Government was an absolute monarchy, which could impose order and demand obedience.

John Locke

Believed that people could learn from experience and improve themselves, Reasonable beings, Natural ability to govern their own affairs, Criticized absolute monarchy, Favored the idea of self-government, All people are born free and equal, with three natural rights—life, liberty, and property, Purpose of government is to protect these rights ,If a government fails to do so, citizens have a right to overthrow it. 

Voltaire

François Marie Arouet - used the pen name Voltaire, Published more than 70 books of political essays, philosophy, and drama, Often used satire against his opponents, Made frequent targets of the clergy, the aristocracy, and the government, Enemies at the French court, and twice he was sent to prison, Fought for tolerance, reason, freedom of religious belief, and freedom of speech, Used his quill pen to fight intolerance, prejudice, and superstition. 

Montesquieu

Devoted himself to the study of political liberty, Believed that Britain was the best-governed and most politically balanced country but misrepresented it in his writings, British king and his ministers = executive power.  carried out the laws of the state, Parliament = legislative power.  made the laws, English courts = judicial power, They interpreted the laws, Montesquieu called this division of power among different branches separation of powers.

Rousseau 

People agree to give up some of their freedom in favor of the common good, The Social Contract, view of the social contract differed greatly from that of Hobbes, Was an agreement among free individuals to create a society and a government, argued that legitimate government came from the consent of the governed, Passionate about individual freedom but argued that civilization corrupts people’s natural goodness. 

Mary Wollstonecraft 

English writer, philosopher, and advocate of women's rights, Published an essay called A Vindication of the Rights of Woman in 1792, During her brief career, she wrote novels, treatises, a travel narrative, a history of the French Revolution, a conduct book, and a children's book, She disagreed with Rousseau that women’s education should be secondary to men’s, Argued that women, like men, need education to become virtuous and useful, Urged women to enter the male-dominated fields of medicine and politics.

John Locke's ideas significantly influenced the Declaration of Independence by providing the philosophical foundation for the concept of natural rights, including "life, liberty, and property"

Voltaire's emphasis on free speech was revolutionary because he actively advocated for the right to express opinions openly, even if they were controversial, in a time when censorship and strict religious authority heavily restricted what people could say, particularly criticizing the Church and government, which often resulted in persecution and imprisonment; his stance challenged the established power structures and paved the way for modern ideas of freedom of expression. 

Rousseau's social contract theory challenged absolute monarchy by asserting that legitimate political power derives solely from the consent of the governed, meaning the people, not a divinely appointed king, hold sovereignty, thus undermining the idea of a monarch with absolute power to rule without the people's input

Thomas Hobbes differed from other Enlightenment thinkers primarily by advocating for a strong, absolute sovereign with unlimited power as the solution to societal chaos

Absolute Monarchs

Louis XIV

Demanded that Protestants convert to Catholicism or leave France, involved his nation in a series of wars to expand France’s frontiers and bring glory to his rule and his actions served to unite Europe against France, leaving his country bankrupt and exhausted at his death.

Peter the Great (Russia)

Forced people to make the old Russian nobles shave their beards and wear Western-style clothing instead of traditional Russian clothing, moved the capitol of Russia from Moscow to St. Petersburg, a modern city he ordered to be built on the Baltic coast, He even had his own son imprisoned and killed when he opposed him.

Catherine the Great (Russia)

Promoted limited reform, corresponded with leading French thinkers, and even granted nobles their own charter of rights. However, refused to part with any of her absolute power, defeated the Ottoman Empire, expanded Russia’s border to the Black Sea, and carved up Poland with her neighbors.

Philip II (Spain)

One of the most powerful rulers in Europe during this time, devout Catholic and believed it was his duty to defend Catholicism against the Muslims of the Ottoman Empire and the Protestants of Europe.  tried and executed thousands of non-Catholics during his reign.  Philip’s vast empire was eventually weakened by high taxes, inflation, bankruptcy, and revolts.

Magna Carta

English nobles forced King John to sign it, which guaranteed that Englishmen could not be fined or imprisoned except according to the laws of the land, John also agreed not to raise new taxes without the consent of his barons, demonstrated that the king’s power could be limited.

Rise of Parliament

Established as a legislative body made up of nobles in the House of Lords and elected representatives in the House of Commons.  New taxes needed the approval of it.

Several conditions allowed European rulers to establish absolute power, including the decline of feudalism, the rise of strong centralized monarchies, the concept of "divine right of kings," religious wars that created a desire for stability, and the growing power of professional bureaucracies, which enabled monarchs to effectively control their territories. 

During the religious wars of the Reformation, kings were presented with three primary opportunities: to seize Church lands, consolidate their power by controlling the religion within their realm, and reduce the influence of the Pope by aligning themselves with the Protestant movement; essentially allowing them to increase their own authority and wealth at the expense of the Catholic Church. 

In the Middle Ages, nobles had been an independent source of power, Nobles kept their wealth and privileges but were expected to obey the king’s commands.  

The divine right to rule, also known as the “divine right of kings,” is a political doctrine asserting that monarchs derive their authority from God and cannot be held accountable for their actions by human means.

Revolutions

The American Revolution
• The Stamp Act of 1765: Britain failed to raise revenue from American colonies, leading to protests and riots.
• The Tea Act of 1773: British imposed the Tea Act, leading to the Boston Tea Party.
• The Coercive Acts of 1774: British closed Boston harbor, stopped local elections, and expanded the royal governor's power.
• The First Continental Congress in 1774: Colonists decided not to allow any concessions to the Crown.
• The Declaration of Independence in 1776: Declaration declared American states' sovereignty and listed natural rights.
• French volunteers in 1777 and Spanish and Dutch declarations of war against Britain in 1779 and 1780.
• The Treaty of Paris in 1783 recognized independence, but not entirely egalitarian.

French Revolution and the French Republic

• The Seven Years' War led to the nearly bankrupt monarchy of France.
• King Louis XVI called the Estates General in 1788 to change laws and allow more taxes.
• The French were divided into three estates: clergy, nobility, and everyone else.
• The Third Estate, with twice the number of delegates, had a voice in the government and made laws.
• In June 1789, the Third Estate declared itself the National Assembly.
• King Louis XVI sent an army towards Paris in response, leading to a revolt.
• By the end of 1789, all privileges of the nobility and the church were abolished.
• The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen declared that all citizens were equal before the law and had individual rights.
• The French Revolution was inspired by the American Revolution representative democracy, promoting harmony between France’s social classes.
• In 1793, King Louis XVI and Queen Marie Antoinette were executed by guillotine, and a French Republic was declared.
• The first French Republic radically changed the political and social structure of the country, demolished traditional power structures, and ended feudalism.
• Napoleon Bonaparte rose to power and declared himself emperor in 1799, promoting equal rights, religious tolerance, and modernizing government administrations.

The Haitian Revolution

• The French colony was the world's richest plantation colony, producing 40% of the world's sugar and half of its coffee.
• Profits were made through enslaved labor, with 500,000 enslaved people, 30,000 free people of color, and 40,000 whites.
• The colony was structured around rampant exploitation and inequalities.
• In 1791, a revolt of enslaved people began, leading to the establishment of the second independent republic in the Americas.
• Toussaint Louverture led the revolution, defeating Napoleon's attempts to regain French control.
• Haiti declared its independence on January 1, 1804, rejecting European racist hierarchies and defining all Haitians as "black."
• The plantation system was dismantled, transforming Haiti into a nation of subsistence farmers.

Latin American Revolutions

The early 19th century saw Latin American revolutionaries aspire for a unified Latin America, a dream that was not fully realized.
• The Creole population led the revolutions initially, responding to events in Europe.
• In 1808, Napoleon's invasion of Spain and Portugal left Latin American colonies without a direct European power.
• In 1810, peasants in Mexico revolted for land and high food prices.
• Two priests, Miguel Hidalgo and José Morelos, led the revolt, advocating for a unified, free Mexico.
• The revolt was eventually put down by wealthy Creole landowners with the support of the Catholic Church.
• Fear of violent rebellions loomed over the Latin American revolutions from 1810 to 1825.
• Revolutionary general Simón Bolívar fought Spanish forces and created a short-lived "Gran Columbia" modeled after the United States.
• José de San Martín led a revolt against the Spanish in southern Latin America.
• These revolutions did not lead to long-lasting constitutional republics, replaced by rulers who prioritized power over liberal ideas.

The American and French Revolutions significantly influenced Latin American independence movements by spreading the ideals of liberty, equality, and self-determination, inspiring Latin Americans to challenge colonial rule and fight for their own independence, particularly through the adoption of Enlightenment principles and the demonstration that colonial powers could be overthrown through revolutionary action. 

Causes of the French Revolution 

• Influence of Enlightenment ideas 

• Influence of the American Revolution Events of the French Revolution 

• Storming of the Bastille 

• Reign of Terror Outcomes of the French Revolution

 • End of the absolute monarchy of Louis XVI 

The Constitution of the United States and the Bill of Rights directly incorporated Enlightenment ideas by enshrining fundamental individual rights like freedom of speech, religion, and the press, based on the concept of "natural rights,” with also Thomas Jefferson

The political philosophies of the Enlightenment fueled revolutions in the Americas and France by promoting ideas like natural rights, individual liberty, the social contract, and the right to overthrow oppressive governments