CAIE IGCSE History Notes

How far was Hitler's Foreign Policy to blame for the outbreak of war in Europe in 1939?

Long term Consequences of ToV

• Dissatisfaction of Major powers:
  • Italy: Did not gain as many colonies as desired.
  • Japan: Racial equality clause rejected.
  • Germany: Resented the treaty, viewed as a "Stab in the back". Signatories known as the "November Criminals".
  • Division of German population led to increasing nationalism.
  • Britain: Many felt the treaty was too harsh and wanted Germany to be a buffer against the USSR.
  • France: Felt the treaty was not harsh enough.

Hitler's rise to power

• Early Events:

  • Munich Putsch (1923): Failed attempt to overthrow the Weimar government; gained national attention and reinforced his determination to achieve power legally.
  • Mein Kampf (1925): Outlined plans to overturn the Treaty of Versailles, rearm Germany, and expand for Lebensraum (living space).

• Key Moments:

  • Reichstag Fire (1933): Used by Hitler to claim a communist threat, consolidate power, and push through the Enabling Act.

• Hitler becomes Chancellor in 1933 and begins systematically dismantling the Treaty of Versailles.

Timeline

• 1933: Hitler walks out of disarmament conference; leaves the league; begins rearmament in secret.
• 1934: Attempted annexation of Austria, stopped by Mussolini.
• 1936: Conscription reintroduced and Rhineland reoccupied.
• 1937: Germany enters Spanish Civil War, supports Franco's right-wing rebels; new German air force is tested.
• 1938: Anschluss of Austria; Sudetenland invaded.
• 1939: Invasion of Czechoslovakia as a whole; invasion of Poland; war begins.

What were the consequences of the failures of the League in the 1930s?

• The Great Depression hindered the league's work.
  • Member states like Britain and France became more focused on national interests than collective security and international interests.
• The league was supposed to uphold ToV, but Britain disagreed; the league took no action when German troops reoccupied the Rhineland in 1936.
• The league could not stop German Rearmament in 1935, so all permanent members began rearmament.
• The Manchuria and Abyssinia crises showed the league could not deal with aggressive major powers, encouraging Germany, Italy, and Japan to take further actions.
• The Saar plebiscite, 1935:
  • As stated in ToV, 15 years after the Saar was under league mandate, a plebiscite took place to decide whether it would remain under league control, be a part of Germany, or a part of France.
  • Over 90% voted for Germany; Hitler reclaimed one of Germany's land, and while following the treaty; great propaganda for Hitler.

Hitler's foreign policy

• Destroy ToV- Rearm, Reintroduce conscription, Build up armed forces, Take back lost territory.

• Destroy communism.

• Reunite Germany- Anschluss with Austria, taking back the Polish corridor and absorbing Sudetenland.

• Living space/ Lebensraum- expand eastwards toward Poland and the Soviet union.

• Foreign policy is seen as "Reasonable".

  • No one stopped rearmament rallies and conscription as other countries were doing it too.
  • BUT not everything was achieved easily- Mussolini objected to the annexation of Austria in 1934, putting a stop to that for a while.

• The occupation of the Rhine

  • Hitler uses the 1935 alliance between France and Russia as a reason to reoccupy "Germany is surrounded by enemies"
  • Why was this not stopped? The league was busy with the Abbysinian crisis; Britain believed Germany had a right to the Rhine; France was undergoing elections so did not want to be in a conflict with Germany.

• Spanish Civil War

  • Fought between left-wing republican government and right-wing rebels led by General Franco.
  • The Soviet Union sent weapons in support of the republican government; Mussolini and Hitler declared for Franco.
  • Britain and France did not get directly involved.
  • Spain became a testing ground for the new German Luftwaffe (air craft)
  • Relations between Musolini and Hitler strengthened; Britain and France sped up rearmament.
  • 1936: Germany and Japan sign the Anti-Comintern Pact against communism.
  • 1937: Germany and Italy form the Rome-Berlin Axis alliance. Germany, Italy, and Japan became known as the "Axis Powers".

• Anschluss with Austria, 1938

  • Many in Austria supported Anschluss, Hitler tells the Austrian Nazi party to stir up trouble and demand anschluss.
  • The Austrian chancellor appeals to Britain and France for aid; none offered; decides to hold a plebiscite; Hitler fears losing plebiscite, so demands Chancellor's resignation; replaced by Nazi leader Seyss-Inquart, who asks Germany for help in restoring order.
  • March 1938: German troops march in unopposed; plebiscite held, Germany wins with 99% votes.
  • British prime minister Chamberlain supported the union.

To what extent was appeasement justified?

• Appeasement?

  • Adopted by Britain and France in the 1930s after the league failed.
  • War would be avoided by conceding to some demands of aggressive dictators (axis powers), essentially appeasing them.

• Was it justified?

  • Yes

    • Chamberlain thought it could avoid War
    • Would buy time for Britain and France to rearm.
    • Chamberlain believed that Hitler's demands could be satisfied.
    • ToV was seen as unjust
    • Communism was seen as a bigger threat than Hitler; Germany would be a strong buffer against communism.

  • No

    • Could delay war, but not avoid it.
    • Gave Hitler time to improve his own armaments too.
    • Hitler was an irrational leader.
    • Smaller nations like Poland and Czechoslovakia were sacrificed by allies to appease dictators.
    • Encouraged hitler more and more as he believed allies couldn't resist his actions

• Invasion of Sudetenland

  • Hitler sought the Sudetenland for its strategic geographic position, economic resources, military defenses, and a large population of ethnic Germans to strengthen and protect Germany.
  • Britain, France, and the USSR had promised to protect Czechoslovakia against a German invasion.
  • 15 September 1938: Chamberlain and Hitler meet in Bavaria, agreeing that certain parts of Sudetenland would be given to Germany if governments of Britain, Czechoslovakia, and France agreed; HOWEVER Hitler claims that Germans in Sudetenland are being mistreated by the Czech government, demands all of Sudetenland, Chamberlain tells the British government to prepare for war, BUT 29th September: Munich Conference is held to discuss the issue with the presence of Italy, Germany, Britain, and France, but neither the USSR OR Czechoslovakia. Creation of the Munich Agreement; Sudetenland would do to Germany, borders of Czechoslovakia would be secured; the Czech government had no choice but to agree to prevent war.
  • 1st October: German troops march into Sudetenland; Poland and Hungary take over Czech territory where they claim their citizens live. Chamberlain returned to Britain declaring war had been delayed; the Czech leader resigned; trust in hitler and his promises had been discarded.

How important was the Nazi-Soviet pact?

• End of Appeasement
  • March 1939: Hitler marched troops into the rest of Czechoslovakia; allies realized Hitler's next step would be Poland; threatened war if he tried invading.
  • While he did not fear Britain and France, he did fear the USSR entering the war.
• Nazi-Soviet Pact
  • August 1939: Nazi-soviet pact signed.
  • A 10-year non-aggression pact between the two nations, seen as highly surprising as Hitler was very vocal in his hate of communism.
  • Through the pact, Stalin and Hitler secretly divided up Polish territories.
  • Hitler avoided a 2 front war through the pact.
  • Why did Stalin agree? The pact gave Stalin much-needed time to prepare for war against Hitler; resources from Poland and Baltic states would help grow the soviet economy; poland would be a good buffer zone against German attacks; Stalin did not trust britain and france following the munich agreement, felt they were powerless against germany, and believed they supported Hitler due to his anti-communist ideals.
• Hitler invades Poland
  • 1st September 1939: Hitler invades Poland
  • Allies give Hitler an ultimatum: withdraw or war.
  • 3rd September: Britain and France declare war on Germany.

Causes of the second world war

• ToV led to political and economic problems for Germany, alongside resentment
• Failures of the league showed Hitler that it was powerless against a powerful nation like Germany, especially without the support of the USA; other nations started prioritizing national interests over league interest.
• Appeasement gave hitler the Rhine, Austria, and Czechoslovakia without any opposition, making hitler believe his actions would never be reprimanded.
• Nazi-Soviet pact allowed hitler to avoid a two-front war when he invaded Poland.
• Hitler's Foreign policy pushed all of his actions leading up to the invasion of Poland.

Who was to Blame for Cold War?

Breakdown of US-Soviet alliance, 1945.

• US-Soviet alliance during WWII
  • Allied against Nazi Germany, despite ideological differences.
  • The Grand Alliance was made up of Winston Churchill (PM, Britain), F. D. Roosevelt (US President), and Joseph Stalin (USSR Leader).
  • SEVERE DIFFERENCES between USA, Britain, and USSR:

• Defeated Hitler by May 1945.

• Cracks in alliance during wartime

  • Mistrust from US and Britain and fear of spread of communism
  • Stalin's mistrust of Roosevelt and Churchill, which started before the war, during the period of appeasement where Stalin was not consulted in issues such as the Munich conference and Germany was appeased as a buffer for the west against communism.
  • Stalin did not share his wartime strategies with the US and Britain and Churchill didn't share his knowledge of German troop movements with Stalin.
  • Public opinion supported a seemingly unified alliance.

• Yalta conference

  • February, 1945.
  • AGREEMENTS; Germany and Berlin to be divided into 4 zones, each under the mandate of one of the big 4 (US, USSR, Britain, France)
  • War criminals to be brought to trial
  • Stalin agreed to join the US in the war against Japan.
  • Agreement to form the UN
  • Free elections to be held in occupied nations after the war, East Europe to be a soviet sphere of influence.
  • DISAGREEMENTS; Poland; Stalin wanted to absorb east Poland into the USSR, Roosevelt and Churchill wanted free elections; compromise reached that some of Stalin's demands would be adhered to provided the USSR does not help communists in Greece.

• Potsdam conference, 1945.

  • Roosevelt died and was replaced by Truman, who was more openly anti communist and prepared to stand up against Stalin's aggressive expansion in east europe; USSR's Red Army, most of eastern europe, Stalin began to set up pro-soviet communist governments.
  • Truman informs Stalin of USA's successful testing of the first atomic bomb.
  • Stalin was already aware because of spies.
  • Churchill is replaced by clement attlee halfway through the conference. In churchill's absence, the conference was essentially a rivalry between Truman and Stalin:
    1. Stalin wanted to incapacitate Germany and gain ruhr resources, BUT Truman didn't want a repeat of ToV.
    2. Truman was reluctant to impose harsh reparations BUT Stalin wanted compensation for the war.
    3. Truman did not want Soviet rule in East Europe BUT this was agreed at yalta.
  • Denazification, trials for war crimes, and splitting Germany into four zones governed by an allied control council were all agreements from yalta that were upheld.

USSR's control of East Europe by

• Control of Eastern European states following Potsdam conference

  • Cominform was set up in 1947 (Communist information Bureau) to coordinate east European communist parties under the rule of the USSR, with only Yugoslavia resisting rule.
  • East Germany, 1945: The Red Army remained in eastern Germany, leading to the formation of the GDR (German Democratic Republic) under communist control in 1949.
  • Poland, 1947: The Red Army stayed, and the communists took over through a coalition government, murder, and rigged elections.
  • Romania, 1947: The Red Army stayed, rigged elections put communists in power, they controlled security forces, and abolished the monarchy.
  • Bulgaria, 1947: The Red Army stayed, a left-wing coalition won, and communists eliminated other leaders, destroying democracy.
  • Hungary, 1948: The Red Army stayed, and communists used the Ministry of Interior to eliminate rivals, becoming the largest party in 1948.
  • Czechoslovakia, 1948: The Red Army left, and Czechoslovakia became a one-party communist state after communists removed non-communist leaders.
  • Albania, 1948: Communists took control of Albania with Yugoslav and Soviet support, later aligning with the USSR under a Stalinist regime.

• Churchill's Reaction

  • Western powers alarmed, agreed to EE being soviet sphere of influence, BUT surprised by complete domination.
  • March 1946, churchill gives his "Iron Curtain speech"
    • Stated that Europe was divided by an iron curtain, with soviet controlled east and liberal west; liberation of west was threatened by soviet domination of east.
  • Stalin viewed soviet domination of east as necessary for defense in case of potential attacks from west.

US reaction to Soviet expansionism

• Policy of Containment

  • Since 1946, there had been a civil war in Greece between monarchists and communists. Britain supported Monarchists and Stalin protested this to the UN, which took no action.

  • 1947: Britain announces withdrawal from greek civil war, Truman took action to stop the spread of communism by funding british troops.

  • Policy of containment/ containing communism was known as the Truman Doctrine. US committed to help any country threatened by communism take-over by sending money, supplies, weapons and advice.

  • Turman believed that communism was only a threat to european nations until the economies were stabilized.

  • George Marshall, secretary of state, is sent to assess financial situation of europe, and his reports make Truman propose $17$ Billion in economic aid= approved after soviet control of Czechoslovakia.

  • Any nation could receive loans from US in "Marshall aid" provided they would create a strong market for US goods.

  • Stalin forbade EE nations from accepting Marshall aid.

Consequences of Berlin Blockade

• Unison of western zones of Germany
  • Germany would be divided into 4 zones: France, USSR, USA, Britain. Berlin was in the soviet zone BUT would be divided into 4 zones too. Allied Control Council would decide matters for germany.
  • By 1947, Truman decided that strong Germany useful ally following soviet domination of the East. 1947: Bizonia formed when USA and Britain merged their zones, France follows in 1948 and - Stalin's suspicions grow.
  • Western zones introduce their own currency, inraging Stalin.
• Stalin's Response
  • Creates his own currency for his zone, BLOCKS west berlin, cutting off supplies by road, rail, and canal from western zones.
  • USA destroying the blockade= act of war.
  • Aggressive move, BUT IF Truman withdrew from berlin= HUGE Propaganda win for Stalin
• Truman's Response to Berlin Blockade
  • If they withdrew from berlin, west germany would be next.
  • BERLIN AIRLIFT: operation by USA, Britain, and France to fly supplies to west berliners.
  • For 11 months, nearly 300,000 flights took place from West Germany and dropped over 2 million tons of fuel, food and other supplies to the 2 million West Berliners.
  • Stalin lifts the blockade in May 1949.
  • COMECON (Council for Mutual economic assistance) created in 1949 for EE communist states. Response to Marshall aid by tying economies of all soviet states to Moscow.
• Consequences of Berlin Blockade
  • Creation of NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) in 1949, a military alliance for the west, where one nation being attacked would provoke a response from all members. Stalin forms Warsaw Pact in response to West Germany joining NATO in 1955.
  • West Germany becomes known as Federal Republic of Germany in May 2949.
  • East Germany is named German Republic of Germany as a response.
  • Proxy Wars would be the primary means of fighting in this "Cold War" Rather than direct conflict.

Who was to blame for Cold War?

• USSR was to blame
  • Broke yalta agreement over Poland
  • Dominated east europe after world war two
  • Cominform created, mean communist nations took orders from Moscow
  • Attempted absorption of west germany during berlin blockade.
  • BUT
    • USSR suffered during WWII and Stalin was trying to defend communism
    • It was agreed that east europe would be soviet sphere of influence
    • Stalin couldn't trust western leaders following Iron Curtain speech and truman's announcement of Atomic Bomb
• USA was to blame
  • Truman was more anti communist than Roosevelt
  • Effect of announcement of the atomic bomb by Truman at Potsdam.
  • Doctrine of containment viewed as an attempt to isolate the USSR in Europe.
  • US supported anti-communist forces in 1947 Greek Civil War.
  • Marshall Aid was an attempt to extend US control over European markets and spread capitalist ideology.
  • Creation of Bizonia in 1947.
  • Creation of new currency in Bizonia in 1948.
  • BUT
    • Containment policy was developed AFTER aggressive soviet domination of east europe
    • Marshall aid was also a policy to help war-torn countries of europe
    • Stalin had broken agreements made at Yalta and Potsdam.

How Effectively Did USA Contain the Spread of Communism?

Events in Korea, 1950-53

• The Korean War

  • By 1948, north of Korea ("Democratic People's Republic of Korea") surrendered to the Soviet union and was led by communist leader Kim Il Sung.
  • South of Korea ("Republic of Korea") led by President Rhee under an anti-communist government, supported by USA
  • Line dividing the two republics was known as the 38th parallel
  • Both governments claimed to be the legitimate government of Korea
  • By 1950, DPRK invaded ROK

• WHY?

  1. north had support of the soviet union (Stalin) and communist China (Mao) who sent DPRK military and financial aid;
  2. DPRK had a much stronger army;
  3. USSR had successfully tested its first atomic bomb; recent speeches made by US leadership implied that Korea was NOT a region of interest for US.

• US Response

  • Truman sends supplies, warships and advisors to ROK, but needs international support to wage war.
  • US presents resolutions to UN Security Council, urging for response to DPRK's aggression
  • Resolution passed BECAUSE soviet union was boycotting the UN for refusal of admission of communist china into UN
  • 18 member states provided armies to support ROK, led by American General McArthur, who would often take orders from Truman instead of UN
  • US was also made the largest portion of the international armed forces assembled by the UN.

• Roadmap of the war

  • North Korean success (June-September 1950) Most of South Korea was overrun by the communists except a small area around Pusan in the south-east.
  • UN counter-attack (September-October 1950) MacArthur launched an attack from behind enemy lines with UN forces heading northwards from Pusan. The capital Seoul was captured, and the communists were pushed back across the 38th Parallel.
  • Attack from China (November, 1950-January 1951) Mao launched a counter-attack as he feared an invasion. Seoul was recaptured by the communists and the UN forces were forced to retreat back across the 38th Parallel
  • UN counter-attack (January-July 1951) The UN forces retook Seoul. MacArthur argued for the use of a nuclear attack against China. He was relieved of his command by Truman, who feared Soviet involvement.
  • Stalemate and armistice (July 1951-July 1953) There was little tactical advantage gained by either side. Peace talks began. Stalin's death in 1953 helped push North Korea to sign an armistice

• Consequences of the war

  • Success for containment as US showed willingness to use force against communism and ROK was protected
  • UN proved more successful than LoN in dealing with aggressive nations.
  • DPRK remained communist with help from china,
  • Relations between US and Japan developed and cold war was now waged in both Europe and East-Asia.
  • MASSIVE casualties
  • The USA furthered its anti-communist alliances by setting up SEATO in South-east Asia and CENTO in Central Asia and the Middle East.
  • Khrushchev (new USSR leader) creates warsaw pact in fear of USA creating anti-communist enemies around the USSR.
    War containment had limits, not COMPLETE pushback of communism.

Events in Cuba, 1959-62

• Cuban Revolution

  • Cuba had long been an American ally. There was a US naval base on the island and many American-owned businesses.
  • The USA supported the dictator, Batista, as he was anti-communist. In 1959, communist - Fidel Castro overthrew Batista.
  • Thousands of anti-communists flee to USA, demanding amarican action to Castro American industry, land, etc were all nationalized.

• Breakdown of US-Cuba relations

  • Eisenower asks CIA to devise plans to overthrow Castro, economic trade between US and Cuba stops after an economic sanctions placed by US on Cuba
  • US media criticizes Castro
  • Plans to use cuban exiles for an invasion are developed by the CIA
  • Castro allies with soviet union, receives $100$ million in economic aid
  • Cuba also receives arms from USSR to defend itself from USA

• Bay of Pigs invasion

  • January 1961: diplomatic relations with cuba broken down
  • Kennedy approves of eisenhower's plans to deploy 1400 US troops and Cuban exiles to Bay of Pigs beach
  • Plan failed. 20,000 cuban troops with air force stopped the invasion.
  • Failure leads to khrushchev undermining kennedy as young and naive.

• Khrushchev arms Cuba- WHY??

  • To defend Cuba: Castro had allied Cuba with the communist USSR. Khrushchev wanted to ensure Cuba could defend itself against a US invasion after the Bay of Pigs.
  • To close the missile gap: US had missiles in Turkey "USSR's backyard". Missiles in Cuba= "US's backyard"
  • To strengthen his position: missiles in cuba= detteret= showing other soviet leaders that he is a strong leader.
  • To bargain: viewed Kennedy as weak after bay of bigs. Wanted to force US to make concessions.

• Cuban Missile Crisis

  • US discovers the missiles and 13 days of crisis follow
  • 16 October: Kennedy was informed of the missiles and Ex Comm formed.
  • 20-22 October: Kennedy decided on the use of a blockade and demanded the USSR withdraw its missiles.
  • 23 October: Khrushchev replied saying the blockade would be ignored.
  • 24 October: 20 Soviet ships approached but then received orders to turn around.
  • 26 October: Khrushchev sent a first letter to Kennedy asking him to promise not to invade Cuba. In return, the missiles would be removed.
  • 27 October: Khrushchev sent a second letter demanding that US missiles needed to be removed from Turkey as well. A U2 spy plane was shot down over Cuba.
  • 27-28 October: Kennedy accepted the terms of the first letter and Khrushchev agreed to dismantle the missiles.

• Consequences

  • Last direct confrontation between USA and USSR during cold war
  • Kruschev succeeded in getting US to remove missiles in Turkey, but was forced to keep the deal a secret.
  • Other soviet leaders thought he looked weak, removed from power in 1964
  • Missile gap had not been closes
  • Kennedy successfully avoided nuclear war, kept peace, and got rid of soviet missiles in cuba= seen as the winner of the crisis
  • Cuba remained a soviet ally, left alone by US, but isolated in the west as the only communist state.

Involvement in Vietnam, 1955-75

• Background

  • Indochina ruled by France pre world war 2, japanese occupation during the war, communist Viet Minh formed in 1941 in opposition to japanese forces, led by Ho Chi Minh, declare vietnamese independence after defeat of japan in 1945.
  • 1945-1954: Indochina war; fought between French controlled south and Viet Minh controlled north for control of Vietnam; USA supports France as per containment; in 1954 France pulls out of war and signs the Geneva Peace Accord that splits Vietnam into North and South with plans of nationwide free elections.

• Domino Theory

  • US believed in Domino Theory- if one country falls to communism, neighboring countries will, too.
  • Eisenhower endorses anti-communist, catholic government of Diem, helps set up Republic of South Vietnam out of fear of communists winning free elections; Diem is unpopular with Vietnamese peasants, who were buddhists.

• Vietcong and Kennedy's involvement

  • Viet Cong: communist party in the south, comprised of south vietnamese peasants, taking orders from Ho Chi Minh(1960); Kennedy responds by sending Diem more funds and advisers to build up South's army (1961).
  • 1962; viet cong launches a guerilla warfare campaign against south government; Kennedy responds by sending 12,000 military advisors and US helicopters to the South
  • Ho Chi Minh trail used by north to send viet cong supplies; Diem murdered in 1963 and his government is overthrown.

• Johnson and escalation of involvement

  • 1964: communist patrol boats open fire on US ships in the Gulf of Tonkin, President Johnson uses this to get congress to pass the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, US troops land on Vietnam, US enters the War.
  • 1965: Operation Rolling Thunder, US begins bombing North vietnam cities and factories; over half a million US troops in Vietnam by 1968.

• War tactics- Vietcong

  • Guerrilla Warfare: ambushes, traps, and hit-and-run tactics. Tunnel complexes constructed to ambush US forces, blitz attacks.
  • Civilian Help: aided south vietnamese citizens to gain support and help
  • Ho Chi Minh Trail: bombed constantly, but US could not stop the supplies.

• War tactics- US

  • Bombing: Operation Rolling Thunder
  • Chemical weapons: Agent Orange to destroy crops and trees used by Viet cong for camouflage, and Napalm to neutralize guerrilla troops, ended up killing a lot of civilians.
  • Conscription: "draft" letters sent to men as young as fresh high school graduates, average age of soldiers 19, BUT most were inexperienced, low morale, and drug use.
  • Search and destroy missions: US troops deployed to villages to search for and execute viet cong troops; many walked into traps, ended up killing more innocent villagers than actual vietcong, turning vietnamese public opinion against the US.

• Public opinion turns against the war, 1968-70

  • Tet Offensive- early 1968, launched by viet cong, attacking over 100 cities and military targets in the south, including american embassy in Saigon (the capital) Failed attempt, BUT a turning point in media and public opinion over the war; question of whether the expense and casualties were truly worth it.
  • My Lai Massacre of 1968: one of the US search and destroy missions, troops go to village of My Lai, end up killing innocent civilians, including women and children; news leaked to american press; anti-war protests peak during 1968-70 period.

• Nixon and Vietnamisation

  • Nixon enters office in 1968, wants to withdraw BUT not make it look like containment failed. By 1973, nixon reduces US troops in vietnam to 30,000 under his policy of "Vietnamisation"= handing reigns of war over to the vietnamese people.
  • Nixon signs a peace treaty with North Vietnam, "Peace with Honour"
  • All of vietnam, cambodia, AND Laos become communist states by 1975.
  • Failure in containment policies, economic, political, propaganda, and social disaster, atrocities of war had been revealed.

How Secure was the USSR's Control Over Eastern Europe, 1948-1989?

Why was there opposition to Soviet control in Hungary in 1956 and Czechoslovakia in 1968, and how did the USSR react to this opposition?

• Hungarian Uprising, 1956
  • Hungarians resented soviet influence and communist rule in Hungary- from loss of freedom of speech, permanence of soviet army presence, banning of the catholic church, poor standards of living, imposition of russian language and culture, to threat of secret police.
  • June, 1956: Moscow forced Rákosi to 'retire' after reformers appealed to Khrushchev. Many reformers and opponents were encouraged by krushchev's new approaches.
  • October, 1956: students in Budapest protest end to soviet rule and implementation of "true socialism"; police makes arrests and soviet soldiers in Hungary were used to protect key buildings and roads; Hungarian workers and soldiers join the protest; Imre Nagy appointed leader.
  • Nagy promises reforms like free elections and withdrawal of soviet troops; political prisoners released and Nagy announces plans to withdraw from the Warsaw pact.
  • November 1956; Krushchev refuses, sends 1000 tanks and troops to hungary fierce fighting breaks out; over 2000 hungarians and 1000 troops died; west was too occupied by suez crisis to help; protests was successfully stopped; Nagy executed; replaced by pro-Soviet regime led by Kadar.
• Czechoslovakia- Reforms and Prague Spring, 1968
  • Student protests take place, hard line leader replaced by Dubcek, promises reforms like removal of censorship, freedom of speech, rights to trade unions and "socialism with a human face"; did not want to leave warsaw pact BUT saw poor standards of living of his citizens; reforms open criticism of communist rule and spread of new and radical ideas in "Prague Spring"; USSR becomes suspicious.
  • August: Brezhnev responds by ordering warsaw pact troops to move into czechoslovakia, west does nothing because "soviet sphere of influence"; concern that reforms of Prague spring might spark across the entire eastern bloc, weakening soviet control and warsaw pact; Dubcek expelled and czech government monitored for any evidence of disloyalty.
  • Brezhnev Doctrine: communist nations MUST have a one party system and would be permanently part of the Warsaw pact. If one country tried to leave, the rest would use force to re-establish control.

How similar were events in Hungary in 1956 and in Czechoslovakia in 1968?