AP Government Review

Unit 1: Constitutional Underpinnings

  • Goals of the US Constitution
      - Create a strong union of states
      - Establish justice
      - Preserve domestic order
      - Provide for the common defense
      - Promote general welfare
      - Promote individual freedoms

  • Constitution Remedies to the Articles of Confederation
      - Corrects weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation by granting specific powers to the national government:
        1. Creates Federalism, balancing power between national and state governments.
        2. National government can tax.
        3. Congress can regulate interstate and foreign commerce.
        4. Established executive and judicial branches via Articles II and III.
       

  • Specific Powers of the National Government
      - Only the national government can coin money.
      - Representation in the House of Representatives based on population; equal representation in the Senate.
      - Bills require a simple majority in both chambers, except for filibuster cases in the Senate needing 60 votes for cloture.
      - Amending the Constitution requires a 2/3 majority in Congress and ratification by 3/4 of the states.

  • Basic Principles of the Constitution
      - Limited government
      - Popular sovereignty
      - Separation of powers
      - Checks and balances
      - Federalism

  • Amendments
      - The Constitution has been amended 27 times; the first 10 are known as the Bill of Rights.

  • Informal Amendments to the Constitution
      - Legislative action: Judiciary Act of 1789.
      - Executive actions: Executive orders.
      - Judicial review: Marbury v. Madison (Required Case).
      - Custom and usage: traditionally no third term for Presidents (22nd Amendment formalizes this).

  • Federalism
      - Types of Powers:
        - Delegated powers: Expressed powers given to the national government.
        - Implied powers: Powers reasonably inferred from the Constitution, as per the Necessary and Proper Clause.
        - Inherent powers: Powers associated with national sovereignty.
        - Concurrent powers: Powers shared by both state and national governments.
        - Reserved powers: Powers belonging solely to the states (10th Amendment).

  • Federalism in Practice
      - Interstate Relations:
        - Full faith and credit clause: states must recognize laws and legal documents of other states.
        - Privileges and immunities clause: prohibits unreasonable discrimination against residents from other states.
        - Extradition: states must return fugitives to the states from which they fled.
        - Interstate compacts: states can collaborate to address regional issues.

  • National Supremacy
      - Supremacy Clause in Article IV: establishes federal law as superior to state law.
      - McCulloch v. Maryland (1819): Confirmed federal government’s power to create a bank (Elastic Clause) and prohibited state taxes on federal institutions (Federal Supremacy).
      - Gibbons v. Ogden (1824): Established national supremacy in regulating interstate commerce.

  • Federalism Today
      - Dual Federalism (1789-1932): Layer cake federalism, with distinct powers for national and state governments.
      - Cooperative Federalism (1932-1968): Marble cake federalism, where both levels cooperate on policy matters.
      - New Federalism (Nixon, Reagan, Bush 41): Devolution of power from national to state governments.

  • Fiscal Federalism
      - Grants-in-aid: Funds provided by the national government to state/local projects.
      - Categorical grants: Specific purposes defined by law.
      - Block grants: General funds for various purposes.
      - Unfunded mandates: Requirements imposed on state/local governments without funding.

  • States Rights & Limitations
      - McDonald v. Chicago (2010): Second Amendment applies to states.
      - United States v. Lopez (1995): Congress cannot use commerce clause for gun possession in school zones.

Unit 2: Political Beliefs and Behaviors

  • Political Culture
      - Shared beliefs and values, including majority rule, free elections, equality, and individual freedoms.

  • Political Socialization
      - The process of acquiring political identity through factors like family, education, group affiliations, demographics, media, and historical events.

  • Public Opinion
      - Collective attitudes of citizens on political issues or public policy.

  • Measuring Public Opinion
      - Polling practices, established by George Gallup in the 1930s, involving sampling, question preparation, controlling poll methodology, and analyzing results.

  • Political Ideology
      - A set of beliefs influencing views on politics and public policy.

  • Political Spectrum
      - Radical: seeks rapid change
      - Liberal: supports active government in promoting welfare
      - Moderate: sits between liberal and conservative
      - Conservative: advocates limited government role
      - Reactionary: desires return to previous state.

Unit 3: Political Parties, Interest Groups, and Mass Media

  • Political Parties
      - Associations seeking to control government through principles, primarily existing in a two-party system (Democrats and Republicans), with minor parties affecting elections to a lesser extent.

  • Functions of Political Parties
      - Recruit, nominate, support candidates, educate electorate, and organize government.

  • Party Identification Factors
      - Influences include ideology, income, race, religion, region, education, occupation, gender, family tradition, and marital status.

  • Reasons for a Two-Party System
      - Historical British heritage, Federalist/Anti-Federalist divide, the electoral system, and election laws.

  • Electoral Dealignment vs. Realignment
      - Dealignment: significant voters no longer support a party.
      - Realignment: shifting party coalitions, marked by events like the Republican Coalition of Lincoln (1860) and the Democratic Coalition of FDR (1932).

  • Political Participation
      - Methods include voting, political discussions, forming groups, contacting officials, contributing, running for office, and protesting.

  • Types of Voting
      - Direct Primary: citizens nominate candidates.
      - Recall: allows citizens to remove officials via petition.
      - Referendum: citizens vote directly on issues.
      - Initiative: voters petition for issues to be decided.

  • Voter Turnout Factors
      - Higher in presidential elections; lower for midterm; influenced by electorate expansion, party mobilization, perceived differences, government mistrust, apathy, satisfaction, efficacy, and registration processes.

  • Types of Voters
      - VAP (Voting Age Population): all individuals of voting age.
      - VEP (Voting Eligible Population): those registered and not disqualified (e.g., felons).

  • Types of Elections
      - Primary Election: candidates are chosen.
      - Closed Primary: only registered party members can vote.
      - Open Primary: any voter can choose.
      - Blanket Primary: any voter can select candidates across parties.
      - Runoff Primary: holds between top candidates when no majority is reached.
      - General Election: all nominated candidates are voted upon.

  • Electoral College
      - A total of 538 electoral votes; candidates need 270 for victory. Winner-take-all method applies based on popular vote; if no majority, House chooses President, Senate chooses Vice-President.

  • Campaign Finance
      - Federal Election Campaign Act (1971): restricted campaign spending and required disclosure of contributions.
      - Buckley v. Valeo (1976): ruled spending limits unconstitutional.

  • Voting and Election Cases
      - Citizens United v. FEC (2010): political spending is protected speech.
      - Baker v. Carr (1961): led to equal protection challenges to redistricting.
      - Shaw v. Reno (1993): constitutional challenges to majority-minority districts.

Unit 4: The Legislative, Executive, and Judicial Branches

  • Congress
      - Established by Article I of the Constitution; bicameral legislature (House of Representatives and Senate) created from the Connecticut Compromise.

  • House of Representatives
      - Membership: 435 members based on state population.
      - Term: 2 years; entire House elected every 2 years.
      - Qualifications: minimum age 25, 7 years a citizen, must reside in state.
      - Leadership: Speaker, Majority Leader, Minority Leader, controlling committee assignments and floor debates.

  • Election Process
      - Apportionment based on population; requires gerrymandering for political advantage.

  • How a Bill Becomes a Law
      1. Introduction and committee assignment
      2. Possible subcommittee review
      3. Return to committee for approval/rejection
      4. Debate and vote in the House
      5. If passed, goes to Senate for similar process
      6. Conference committee resolves differences between versions
      7. Resolved bill returns for final House vote before Presidential approval.

  • US Senate
      - Membership: 100 members (2 per state).
      - Term: 6 years; staggered elections.
      - Qualifications: minimum age 30, citizen for 9 years, resident of state.
      - Leadership defined: Vice President as presiding officer, Majority Leader as influential member.

  • How a Bill Becomes a Law in the Senate
      - Similar to the House but without a rules committee.

  • Congressional Override
      - Congress may override Presidential veto with a 2/3 majority vote in both houses.

  • Types of Committees
      - Standing, Select, Joint, and Conference committees are formed for various legislative purposes.

  • Caucuses
      - Informal groups formed by members with common goals.

  • Legislative Roles & Techniques
      - Policymaker, representative, servant, party member; tactics include the caucus system, filibuster, pork barrel, logrolling, and lobbying.

  • Executive Branch and Bureaucracy
      - Established under Article II, detailing presidential responsibilities, qualifications, term limits, and election processes, including the 25th Amendment for succession and impeachment powers.

  • Presidential Powers
      - Include executive, legislative, military, diplomatic, and judicial powers. Checks on power through Congressional oversight and media scrutiny.

  • Structure of the Bureaucracy
      - Organization into Cabinet departments, independent regulatory agencies, government corporations, and other executive offices.

  • Federal Court System
      - Dual court system established by Article III; original jurisdiction vested in District Courts and appellate jurisdiction in Courts of Appeals and the Supreme Court.

  • Judicial Selection
      - Federal judges, including justices, are appointed by the President with Senate confirmation; serve lifetime terms with impeachment possible for removal.

  • Supreme Court Process
      - Cases accepted by rule of four; litigation involves briefs and oral arguments; majority, concurring, and dissenting opinions established as legal precedent.

  • Judicial Activism vs. Restraint
      - Judicial activism encourages active policy influence; restraint adheres strictly to constitutional interpretation.

Unit 5: Politics and Public Policymaking

  • Agenda-Setting
      - Recognition of issues as political priorities; influenced by citizens, interest groups, media, and government entities.

  • Policy Formation and Implementation
      - Formation involves devising solutions; adoption entails creating actionable plans, often involving legislation; implementation provides practical execution through designated agencies.

  • Policy Evaluation
      - Analysis of policies to assess effectiveness and impact.

  • Domestic Policy Areas
      - Major areas include crime prevention (FBI, DEA, ATF), education regulations, and energy management.

  • Economic Policy
      - Covers taxation (income, corporate, estate), types of government spending (discretionary and nondiscretionary), and federal budget crafting processes with deadlines and consequences for non-passage.

Unit 6: Civil Liberties and Civil Rights

  • Civil Liberties
      - Defined through constitutional protections, including writ of habeas corpus, no bills of attainder, and protections against ex post facto laws and unreasonable searches.

  • Bill of Rights
      - Enshrining freedoms related to religion, speech, press, assembly, and legal procedures.

  • 14th Amendment
      - Extends protections to states; enables selective incorporation, regulating state actions concerning individual rights.

  • Freedom of Religion
      - Establishment Clause prohibits state religion; Free-Exercise Clause ensures the right to practice beliefs; relevant Supreme Court cases include Engle v. Vitale and Wisconsin v. Yoder.

  • Freedom of Speech
      - Categorized into pure speech, symbolic speech, and speech plus. Key cases: Schenck v. United States, Tinker v. Des Moines, and Texas v. Johnson.

  • Freedom of the Press
      - New York Times v. Sullivan sets defamation standards requiring knowledge of false statements; other relevant case: New York Times v. United States.

  • Freedom of Assembly
      - Regulated to protect others' rights and safety, reinforced by Dejonge v. Oregon.

  • Substantive and Procedural Due Process
      - Substantive evaluates fairness of laws; procedural assesses adherence to established processes.

  • Civil Rights
      - Defined as government actions to prevent discrimination; centered around the Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment.

  • Civil Rights Movement
      - Key outcomes include the abolition of slavery (13th Amendment), citizenship definition (14th Amendment), voting rights for males (15th Amendment), and outlawing poll taxes (24th Amendment).

  • Key Legislation and Court Cases
      - Significant cases: Brown v. Board of Education, Civil Rights Act of 1964, and Voting Rights Act of 1965.

  • The Women’s Movement
      - Achievements include voting rights (19th Amendment) and prohibitions against gender discrimination in pay and employment.

  • People with Disabilities
      - Key legislation to prevent discrimination includes the Rehabilitation Act and the Americans with Disabilities Act.

  • Affirmative Action
      - Designed to address past discrimination; contextualized by University of California v. Bakke ruling.