EXERCISES soft skills
Page 1: Introduction to Research Methodology
Differences between Science and Pseudoscience
Science: Systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe.
Pseudoscience: Claims or beliefs mistakenly regarded as being based on the scientific method.
Example of Pseudoscience: Astrology.
Scientific Community: Refers to the collective group of scientists and researchers who communicate their findings, conduct peer review, and validate research methods through collaboration and established standards.
Educational Ideal by Wilhelm von Humboldt: Emphasized the integration of research and teaching and the importance of academic freedom.
Pure Science vs. Applied Science
Pure Science: Focuses on increasing knowledge (e.g., physics, chemistry).
Applied Science: Uses scientific principles to develop practical applications (e.g., engineering, medicine).
Correct Statements:
Mathematics is often considered a formal science.
Business studies and economics are part of the social sciences rather than humanities.
Empirical sciences can be divided into natural and social sciences.
Political science is indeed a social science.
Biology is classified as a natural science.
Natural Sciences vs. Cultural Sciences: Natural sciences yield quantitative, precise results, whereas cultural sciences are more qualitative and context-dependent with less exactness.
Cancel Culture and Wokeness:
Cancel Culture: Practice of withdrawing support for public figures or companies after they have done or said something considered objectionable.
Wokeness: Awareness of social inequalities and injustices.
Both concepts often clash with the principle of freedom of scientific inquiry by imposing social pressures.
Explanation vs. Understanding:
Explanation: Involves clarifying concepts through logic, evidence, and rationale.
Understanding: Involves grasping the significance or meaning of something.
Guiding Questions in Research Design: Focus on identifying the problem you aim to solve or the question you want to answer.
Lexical vs. Stipulative Definition:
Lexical Definition: Reflects common understanding and can be true or false.
Stipulative Definition: A definition assigned to a term, which cannot be true or false.
Example: "An adult is of 'normal weight' if he/she has a BMI between 18.5 and 25." (This is a stipulative definition)
Truth Value of Statements:
Statements like "The meaning of life is to do good..." are subjective and lack objective truth value.
"It cannot be cold and warm at the same time" possesses a truth value.
Propositional statements like political opinions may or may not have truth values.
Axioms vs. Hypotheses:
Axiom: A self-evident truth that requires no proof.
Hypothesis: A conjecture or proposition that is testable.
Ockham’s Razor: A principle suggesting that the simplest explanation is usually the best one; attributed to the philosopher William of Ockham.
Page 2: Argumentation
Elements of an Argument: Composed of premises and a conclusion.
Implicit Premise: An unstated assumption that logically supports the argument.
Identifying Premises and Conclusions:
a) Economic Policy Argument:
Premise (Explicit): Economic policy based on the social market economy leads to prosperity.
Conclusion: The government should adopt this policy.
b) Sherlock Holmes Deduction:
Premise: The dog knows the visitor since it did not bark.
Conclusion: The visitor is familiar to the dog.
Diagramming Arguments: Helps visually represent logical structure.\
Example for life in the universe:
Life exists on Earth.
Universe is infinite.
Conclusion: Life must exist elsewhere.
Argument vs. Explanation: A statement may delineate causal relationships rather than establish an argument. The provided text about young workers identifies a causal relationship without directly arguing.
Logic of Arguments: The provided argument about mail being late due to icy roads demonstrates a logical fallacy, relying on overly simplistic reasoning—iff conditions are unmet, conclusions drawn must be examined.
Page 3: Types of Arguments
True Statements:
Deductive arguments mandate that if premises are false, conclusions must also be false.
Inductive conclusions hold a degree of probability based on premises.
Anna’s Ferrari Example: May be validated as correct under specific argument classifications—logic must be evaluated distinctly between deductive and abductive forms.
Classifying Arguments:a. Deductive: All Germans like beer...b. Inductive: Cheese crumbs lead to conclusion about mice...c. Abductive: Eggs with same best-before date reasoning.
Inductive Reasoning in Business Success: The correlation between vocabulary and executive success illustrates an assumption that may be statistically significant.
Pain and Pleasure Induction: Generalizations about bodily sensations and their transferability among people highlight a deeper philosophical discussion on perception.
Question of Tomorrow's Sunrise: Raises philosophical queries over certainty in scientific predictions.
Contexts in Science:
Context of Discovery: Focused on how scientific inquiries are formulated.
Context of Justification: Refers to the methods used for validating hypotheses and conclusions.
Flawed Arguments:
Importance of critical analysis in recognizing fallacious reasoning in beliefs and claims.
Page 4: Research Methodology Technologies
Animism: Belief that objects and natural phenomena possess a spiritual essence or soul.
Rationalism: Philosophical stance prioritizing reason as the source of knowledge; primary method is deduction.
Empiricism: Stresses knowledge acquisition through sensory experience; main method is observation and experimentation.
Falsification: A method introduced by Karl Popper, where a hypothesis must be testable and can be proven false.
Paradigm: Framework containing the accepted theories and practices within a scientific discipline; associated with Thomas Kuhn.
Exploratory Research: Aimed at investigating a problem that is not clearly defined and gathering insights.
Hermeneutics: Study of interpretation, especially of texts, in articulating meaning beyond surface understanding.
Quantitative and Qualitative Methods:
Quantitative Examples: Surveys, statistical analysis.
Qualitative Examples: Interviews, content analysis.
Primary vs. Secondary Data:
Primary Data: Original data collected firsthand.
Secondary Data: Data previously collected for other purposes.
Page 5: Research Integrity
Contract Research: Risks include bias towards funders’ interests compromising outcome integrity.
Open Access: Movement promoting free, immediate access to research outputs.
Double Blind Review: Evaluation process where both authors and reviewers are unknown to each other, promoting impartiality.
Replicability of Research: Essential for scientific credibility, ensuring studies yield consistent findings across repeated trials.
Value Freedom of Science: Principle suggesting science should remain unbiased; however, is scrutinized for feasibility.
Cognitivism vs. Noncognitivism: Philosophical positions on whether ethical statements can be true or false or are merely expressions of emotional responses.
Discourse Ethics: Emphasizes moral norms must be justified through rational discourse among participants.
Page 6: Literature and Presentation
Grey Literature: Documents produced outside of traditional publishing that may lack formal peer review.
Mature Scientific Texts: Typically found in peer-reviewed journals and books.
Monograph: A detailed written study of a single specialized subject or an aspect of it, typically by a single author.
Choosing Topics for Papers: It is usually advisable to choose a narrowly focused topic for deeper exploration.
Changing Thesis Titles: Conditions under which titles may or may not be altered post-registration should be verified through institutional policies.
Structuring Topics in Exposé: Clear organization is necessary to present a logical flow of ideas and objectives.
Procrastination: The act of delaying tasks; strategies to avoid include setting specific deadlines and goals.
Page 7: Research Ethics
Snowball System Dangers: Reliance solely on this for literature searches may miss crucial, unrelated sources.
Citation Cartel: A practice where authors cite each other’s work to inflate their citation counts, compromising academic integrity.
Bibliometrics: The quantitative analysis of published literature to assess research performance or impact.
Impact Factor: A measure reflecting the yearly average number of citations to recent articles published in a journal.
Abstract: A brief summary of a research paper's content, outlining the main arguments and findings.
Reading Techniques: Silent reading along with text can prevent comprehension and retention lapses.
Foreword Requirement: Investigate contextual norms regarding whether a foreword is customary in papers.
Explaining Abbreviations: Abbreviations can be explained through definitions or a separate explanatory list.
Appendix Content: Typically includes supplementary materials irrelevant to the main text but important for context.
Table of Contents Elements: Lists significant sections of a paper, marked clearly for ease of navigation.
List of Figures: Consider generating if only one figure exists, may clarify references within the text.
Page 8: Formatting and Structuring
List of Figures Standards: Consistent numbering, caption visibility, and page indication are requirements.
Outline Symmetry Considerations: Maintaining structure is crucial for clarity; avoid disorganized levels.
Seminar Paper Structuring: Generally, papers should be organized clearly with distinct headings and subsections.
Logical Outlining: Part-level headings must reflect coherent topic relationships and be logically arranged.
Formal Corrections in Outlining: Follow hierarchical structures to maintain logical flow and coherence.
DIN Standards Role: Provide consistency in layout and citation standards to enhance readability and acceptance.
Page 9: Outlining Techniques
Logical Structuring: Essential for drafting comprehensive academic arguments; must adhere to thematic relevance.
Consistency in Outlining: Ensure subsections naturally develop from main ideas to uphold logical integrity.
Incorporating Honorific Titles: STEM fields benefit from clarity; titles must be abbreviated appropriately in lists.
Page 10: Language and Presentation
Denotation vs. Connotation: Distinction is important for precise communication of concepts in academic writing.
English as Lingua Franca: Discusses advantages (universal communication) and disadvantages (loss of local linguistic diversity).
Avoiding First-person Statements: Suggests rephrasing rules to foster a formal tone in research writing.
Sentence Splitting: Reducing complexity by dividing lengthy sentences fosters clarity and readability.
Positive Rephrasing: Convert negative statements into affirmative expressions to enhance tone and clarity.
Page 11: Gender-Neutral Language
Gender-Neutral Language: Importance in academia to reflect inclusivity and remove gender bias from terminology.
Page 12: Citation Standards
Citation Requirement Rules: Specifics on when citations are necessary and formats to adhere to are critical.
Plagiarism Techniques: Understanding forms of misconduct in citation practices is vital for maintaining academic integrity.
Citability vs. Citation Worthiness: Differentiating between how frequently something should be cited versus its actual citation rate.
Quoting Wikipedia: This may be debated; Wikipedia can be a starting point but is not a scholarly source.
Direct vs. Indirect Quotations: Guidelines on usage frequency, type, and presentation impact scholarly writing ability.
Citation Techniques: Clarifies necessary formats for both direct and indirect quotations in written text.