Standardisation and Codification of the English Language

Historical Context and the Development of English

• English is described as a "vacuum cleaner" of a language because of its extensive history of interaction with other cultures and languages. Its development has been influenced by:

  • The Romans.

  • The Danes and the Vikings.

  • The French.

  • The Renaissance, which introduced elements of Latin, Greek, and Hebrew into the linguistic background.

Codification and Regulation

• Codification refers to the process of establishing rules for a language to make it consistent. One satirical observation regarding the logic of English is that if the language made sense, a "catastrophe" would be an "apostrophe with fur."

• Jonathan Swift: An Anglo-Irish author and prose satirist who, in $1712$, argued that the English language was in a state of chaos.

  • Swift proposed the creation of an academy to regulate English.

  • He viewed contractions as "inelegant" and believed they corrupted the language. Examples he cited included:

    • $disturb’d$

    • $defer’d$

    • $‘tis$

    • $‘twas$

Samuel Johnson’s Dictionary ($1755$)

• Published in $1755$, this work was the primary reference for English for $173$ years until the publication of the Oxford English Dictionary.

• Composition Details:

  • It contained $40,000$ entries.

  • It took Johnson $7$ years to write.

  • He was assisted by $6$ helpers.

• Characteristics:

  • The dictionary preserved many spellings used in modern English.

  • The definitions were noted for being succinct and consistent.

  • It was descriptive in nature; Johnson stated his aim was to "not form but register the language."

  • Criticisms: The work was later criticized for being highly selective. Half of the entries were derived from only seven sources: Shakespeare, Dryden, Milton, Addison, Bacon, Pope, and the Bible.

• Idiosyncratic Definitions:

  • Lexicographer: "A writer of dictionaries; a harmless drudge, that busies himself in tracing the original, and detailing the signification of words."

  • Excise: "A hateful tax levied upon commodities, and adjudged not by the common judges of property, but wretches hired by those to whom excise is paid."

  • Oats: "A grain, which in England is generally given to horses, but in Scotland supports the people."

Standardisation and Standard English

• Standardisation involves the acceptance of a specific form of English as the norm against which other varieties are compared.

• Kate Burridge’s View: A non-standard dialect is just as valid a communication system as the standard.

• David Crystal’s Definition of Standard English:

  • It has no local base; there are no features in its syntax or lexis that link it to a specific geographical area.

  • It is defined by grammar, vocabulary, and spelling rather than pronunciation.

  • It is the variety with the most prestige, associated with the powerful.

  • It is used by public institutions including Universities, schools, government, and the media.

  • It is the most widely understood variety; more people can understand Standard English than can speak or write it.

• Sara Thorne’s Perspective:

  • Standard English provides a unified means of communication for a country, cutting across regional differences.

  • It is frequently called "BBC English" or "The Queen’s English."

  • It is associated with the law, education, the church, and the financial world.

  • It is the form taught to second-language learners, which perpetuates its cultural value.

Received Pronunciation (RP)

• Received Pronunciation (RP) is the standard form of pronunciation associated with Standard English.

• Current Usage: Today, only 2-3 \text{%} of the British population speak RP in its original form.

• Modified Received Pronunciation (MRP): This is a more common form used by educated speakers who mix RP characteristics with regional forms.

• Social judgements regarding accents have become less dogmatic; RP is no longer a prerequisite for social status. Politicians, academics, and media presenters often retain modified regional accents.

Linguistic Attitudes: Prescriptivism and Descriptivism

• Language exists on a continuum of attitudes regarding its change and evolution.

• Prescriptivism:

  • Prescriptivists are focused on the "rules" of language.

  • They believe these rules should be applied strictly, regardless of context, participant relationships, mode, or codification.

• Descriptivism:

  • Descriptivists are concerned with how language is actually used without passing judgment.

  • They use the terms "standard" and "non-standard" as descriptors rather than labeling usage as "right" or "wrong."

  • Language variation is viewed as dependent on context, relationships, purpose, and specific dialects (e.g., Australian English, Aboriginal Australian English, Ethnolects, or Youthspeak).

Morphological Changes

• Morphology is the study of the internal structure of words. New words are formed through several processes:

  • Shortenings: Reducing existing words (e.g., $pram, bus, gorge, cray$).

  • Compounding: Combining two or more free morphemes (e.g., $Headstrong, Hamburger, Girlfriend, Web site, Bro hug, Humblebrag, Live-tweet$).

  • Affixing: Adding bound morphemes to words.

    • Prefixes: $Anti-, Pro-, Sub-$

    • Suffixes: $-ise, -ation$

    • Infixes: Inserting a morpheme into the middle of a word (e.g., $bloody$ in "un-bloody-likely").

  • Blends: Merging two original words (e.g., $Cankle, Ginormous, Slanguage, Netiquette, Mansplain$).

  • Acronyms: Words formed from initials and pronounced as a single word (e.g., $ANZAC, YOLO, LOL, WASPS, POSH, FIGJAM$).

  • Initialisms: Words formed from initials where each letter is pronounced (e.g., $PTO, FML, BTW, ASAP, ICYMI$).

  • Backformation: Subtracting a part of a word (often a perceived affix) to create a new word.

    • Example: "To bludge" created from "bludger" by dropping the $-er$.

    • Other examples: $babysit$ from $babysitter$, $air-condition$ from $air conditioning$, $demograph$ from $demographics$, $emote$ from $emotion$, $enthuse$ from $enthusiasm$, $grunge$ from $grungy$, $headhunt$ from $headhunter$.

  • Conversion: A word changes from one word class to another without adding an affix.

    • Example: "Market" used as a noun ("going to the market") versus a verb ("market this product") beginning in the $17th$ century.

Lexical Changes

• Lexicology is the study of words within a specific language. New words enter the lexicon through:

  • Borrowings: Anglicized words from other languages (e.g., $pen$ from Latin $penna$, $Smorgasbord$ from Swedish, $Sushi$ from Japanese).

  • Commonisation: Names (brands, places, persons) becoming common nouns.

    • Examples: $Blunnies$ (from Blundstones), $Nurofen, Band-aid, Sellotape, Post-its, hoovers$.

  • Archaisms: Outdated or old-fashioned language (e.g., $thee, thou$).

  • Neologisms: New words that have recently been accepted into the language.

    • Can involve shifts between domains (e.g., $wireless$ moving from radio to internet) or innovations (e.g., $goon$ for cask wine).

  • Obsolescence: If the referent of a word ceases to exist, the word may be removed from the language.

    • Examples: $baselard$ (a small sword) and $brigadine$ (torso armor).

Semantic Changes

• Semantics is the study of meaning. Words change meaning over time through several processes:

  • Broadening: The meaning expands to include more contexts.

    • Example: $bush$ broadened from meaning a shrub to meaning "the woods."

    • Example: $holiday$ shifted from a religious "holy day" to any day off.

  • Narrowing: The meaning becomes more specific and moves to fewer contexts.

    • Example: $starve$ meant "to die" in Old English, then "to die of cold" in Middle English, and finally "to die of hunger" in the $16th$ century.

    • Example: $meat$ once meant any food but now refers only to animal flesh.

  • Shift: The word comes to mean something entirely different.

    • Example: $gay$ shifted from "merry" to "homosexual."

    • Example: $literally$ is now frequently used to mean "figuratively."

  • Elevation (Amelioration): A word develops more favorable or positive connotations.

    • Example: $wicked$ meaning "very good."

    • Example: $awfully$ used as an intensifier meaning "very."

    • Example: $deadly$ in Aboriginal English.

  • Deterioration (Pejoration): A word acquires negative connotations.

    • Example: $cunning$ shifted from meaning "skilful" to "deceptive/selfish."

Semantic Comparison Table

The Great Vowel Shift

• The Great Vowel Shift represents a major change in the pronunciation of the English language that occurred between the Middle English and Early Modern English periods.

• This shift has significantly affected English spelling, often resulting in discrepancies between how words are spelled and how they are currently pronounced.

Questions & Discussion

• Question: What is Standard English?

  • Answer: A variety of English accepted as the norm, characterized by lack of a regional base, institutional usage, and high prestige.

• Question: Which dialect 'almost' became a base for Standard English and why did it not succeed?

  • Answer: London English became the basis because of its association with the capital, the court, and centers of commerce/learning. Scribes in these areas influenced the standard, though variation persisted before full codification.

• Question: Why might scribes of texts add an 'extra e'?

  • Answer: Often to justify the margins of the text or as a result of inconsistent spelling practices prior to full standardisation.

• Question: What do we mean by codified?

  • Answer: The process of organizing and recording the rules and vocabulary of a language in a systematic way (e.g., through dictionaries and grammar books).

• Question: Many disagreed with words such as ‘belly-timber’ in Johnson's dictionary. What linguistic term describes such attitudes?

  • Answer: Prescriptivism.