Detailed Study Notes on U.S. Imperialism in the Late 19th Century

The Path of Empire: 1890–1899

• Overview
  • The Democratic National Platform of 1900 warned against imperialism leading to domestic despotism.
  • Post-Civil War, Americans were mainly focused on internal issues, showing little interest in international matters.
  • Transition to imperialism at the end of the 19th century marked a major shift in U.S. foreign policy.

Imperialist Stirrings

• Economic Motivation

  • U.S. farmers and factory owners looked for new markets as agriculture and industry surged.
  • The belief emerged that America needed to expand or risk decline due to labor and agrarian unrest.

• Cultural Factors

  • Yellow journalism from figures like Joseph Pulitzer and William Randolph Hearst portrayed foreign exploits as adventurous, appealing to many.
  • Missionaries, influenced by Josiah Strong’s writings, sought to spread American values and religion.
  • Darwinism was misinterpreted by expansionists (such as Theodore Roosevelt) to justify dominance: the strong should control the weak.

• Developments in Military Strategy

  • Alfred Thayer Mahan's publication "The Influence of Sea Power upon History" emphasized naval power as essential to dominance.
  • Calls for a stronger navy and plans for an isthmian canal increased focus on foreign policy.

• Early Diplomatic Efforts

  • Secretary of State James G. Blaine’s “Big Sister” policy intended to align Latin American nations with the U.S. and open their markets.
  • Pan-American Conference (1889) aimed at fostering economic cooperation, marking the start of inter-American relations.

First International Conflicts

• Near Wars of the Late 1880s and Early 1890s
  • Samoa (1889): U.S. nearly engaged with Germany over the Samoan Islands.
  • Italy (1891): Lynching of Italians in New Orleans provoked tensions nearly leading to war.
  • Chile (1892): Demands related to the deaths of U.S. sailors in Valparaiso escalated tensions.
  • Canada: Dispute over seal hunting resolved by arbitration (1893).

Monroe Doctrine and Venezuelan Crisis

• Venezuela Boundary Dispute (1895-1896)

  • Tensions escalated between the U.S. and Britain over the disputed boundary between British Guiana and Venezuela.
  • President Cleveland and Secretary of State Richard Olney emphasized that British actions violated the Monroe Doctrine.
  • Olney’s assertive note to Britain called for arbitration, although this was met with resistance from the British government.

• American Response

  • Public opinion across the U.S. rallied around the idea of supporting Venezuelan claims and challenging Britain, enhancing the Monroe Doctrine's standing.
  • British reluctance to engage embroiled them in concerns over other geopolitical pressures.

Hawaii and Cuban Revolt

• Annexation of Hawaii

  • Early 19th-century missionaries began to settle in Hawaii, eventually leading to American control of the islands despite opposition from Queen Liliuokalani.
  • A coup by white planters, assisted by American troops, led to a push for annexation, falsely deemed a benign act.
  • Cleveland's withdrawal of the annexation treaty led to a pause in annexation until the Spanish-American War.

• Cuban Revolution

  • Cuba's revolt against Spain in 1895 was exacerbated by U.S. economic interests and tariff challenges.
  • The actions of Spanish General Weyler, who brutalized civilians, fueled American outrage and sympathy for the insurgents.

Yellow Journalism and the Maine Incident

• Sensationalism
  • Yellow press’ portrayal of Cuban conditions stirred public sentiment toward intervention.
  • The mysterious explosion of the USS Maine in Havana Harbor (February 15, 1898) catalyzed U.S. war fervor, despite unresolved questions about the cause.

McKinley’s War Decision

• President McKinley’s Dilemma

  • Initially opposed to war, McKinley faced intense public and political pressure.
  • He sought a resolution that involved intervention while preparing to manage international repercussions.
  • The Teller Amendment assured that the U.S. would not annex Cuba, a declaration of intended liberation.

• Dewey’s Victory at Manila

  • Commodore Dewey's decisive naval victory at Manila Bay (May 1, 1898) established American military capabilities.

Outcomes of the War

• Capture of Manila

  • August 13, 1898: Manila surrendered to American forces in cooperation with Filipino insurgents.
  • Hawaii’s strategic importance grew as a supply base for military action.

• Puerto Rico and Guam

  • These territories were acquired as outcomes of war negotiations, heightening American territorial claims.

Debate over the Philippines

• Post-War Dilemma
  • McKinley faced confusion over whether to return the Philippines, engage in colonial governance, or grant them independence.
  • After heated discussions, the U.S. acquired the Philippines for $20 million, generating significant debate and backlash from anti-imperialists.

The Anti-Imperialist Movement

• Formation and Arguments
  • The Anti-Imperialist League formed to oppose the annexation of foreign territories, incorporating diverse voices against imperialism, including prominent figures in American society.
  • Concerns were raised about violating self-governance principles and moral implications of imperialism, posing the question of whether American laws and protections extended to new territories.

Final Agreements and Their Impact

• The Treaty of Paris (1899)

  • With the treaty’s approval, the U.S. solidified its status as a global power with implications for its foreign policies moving forward.
  • Puerto Rico: Limited self-governing rights under the Foraker Act and eventual citizenship granted in 1917.
  • Cuba: The installation of the Platt Amendment, heavily limiting Cuban autonomy while allowing U.S. intervention and presence.

• Long-Term Consequences

  • The war marked America’s emergence as an imperial power, leading to future entanglements and commitments in world politics, particularly concerning Asian territories and U.S. foreign policy in the 20th century.